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Abstract
Forests offer a diversity of habitats for animals, plants, and fungi. With this they are essential in providing a multitude of ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, wood provision, clean water, and recreation, as well as, natural hazard protection. Their large genetic diversity and heterogeneity of species and habitats is the foundation of a successful adaptation to climate change. Last but not least, it is worth protecting and further evolving forest biodiversity for its intrinsic value and beauty. According to the recent National Forest Inventory (BWI 2022) about 95 % of German forests are currently managed. However, there is a wide range of management systems and intensities. These are apparent past and present as well as between the different regions. A deeper understanding of the effects of different forest management systems on the biological diversity (later on: biodiversity) is essential to not only to preserve forest biodiversity but to selectively use it to secure all ecosystem services, as well as, creating resilient forests under climate change. Besides management, the changing climate, deposition, and pesticides influence forest biodiversity...