Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Monke, James D. Author-Name: Durst, Ron L. Title: The Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997: Provisions for Farmers and Rural Communities Abstract: Under the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, most farmers will pay less Federal income tax, and farm families will find it easier to transfer the family farm across generations. The new law--the tax portion of 1997 legislation to balance the Federal budget by 2002--emerges from years of debate on proposals for tax simplification, broad tax reduction, and targeted relief for capital gains and estate taxes. The legislation is expected to generate a net tax reduction of $95 billion over 5 years for all taxpayers. A number of general and targeted tax relief provisions will reduce Federal taxes significantly for farmers and other rural residents, but also will increase the complexity of both Federal income and estate taxes. Farmers are expected to save more than $1.6 billion per year in Federal income taxes and $150-200 million in Federal estate taxes. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Public Economics Length: 31 Number: 33905 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33905 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33905/files/ae980764.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33905 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dimitri, Carolyn Author-Name: Tegene, Abebayehu Author-Name: Kaufman, Phillip R. Title: U.S. FRESH PRODUCE MARKETS: MARKETING CHANNELS, TRADE PRACTICES, AND RETAIL PRICING BEHAVIOR Abstract: Retail consolidation, technological change in production and marketing, and growing consumer demand for produce have altered the traditional market relationships between producers, wholesalers, and retailers. Increasingly, produce suppliers are asked to provide additional marketing services and incentives in exchange for volume purchases and other commitments by buyers. This report synthesizes the results from a multiphase project that examined the dynamics of produce marketing, the produce shipper-retailer relationship, and how changes in the produce market affect the relative market influence of producers, retailers, and consumers. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization Length: 23 Number: 33907 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33907 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33907/files/ae030825.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33907 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ackerman, Karen Z. Author-Name: Dixit, Praveen M. Title: AN INTRODUCTION TO STATE TRADING IN AGRICULTURE Abstract: State trading enterprises are far more prevalent in agriculture than in other industries. STEs account for significant shares of world trade in grains, dairy products, and sugar. Attempts to measure the impacts of STEs and their activities on international agricultural trade have just begun. This report presents a classification scheme for STEs that provides a qualitative index of an STE's ability to control domestic markets and its ability to influence external trade. We applied the classification scheme to nine major agricultural STEs and concluded that only a few of them are able to affect international trade substantially. Recent policy reforms have eroded some of the nine's powers to influence trade. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 39 Number: 33909 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33909 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33909/files/ae990783.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33909 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc Author-Name: Kaplan, Jonathan D. Author-Name: Christensen, Lee A. Author-Name: Gollehon, Noel R. Author-Name: Johansson, Robert C. Author-Name: Breneman, Vincent E. Author-Name: Aillery, Marcel P. Author-Name: Agapoff, Jean Author-Name: Peters, Mark Title: MANURE MANAGEMENT FOR WATER QUALITY COSTS TO ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS OF APPLYING MANURE NUTRIENTS TO LAND Abstract: Nutrients from livestock and poultry manure are key sources of water pollution. Ever-growing numbers of animals per farm and per acre have increased the risk of water pollution. New Clean Water Act regulations compel the largest confined animal producers to meet nutrient application standards when applying manure to the land, and USDA encourages all animal feeding operations to do the same. The additional costs for managing manure (such as hauling manure off the farm) have implications for feedgrain producers and consumers as well. This report's farm-level analysis examines on-farm technical choice and producer costs across major U.S. production areas for hauling manure to the minimum amount of land needed to assimilate manure nutrients. A regional analysis then focuses on off-farm competition for land to spread surplus manure, using the Chesapeake Bay region as a case study. Finally, a sectorwide analysis addresses potential long-term structural adjustments at the national level and ultimate costs to consumers and producers. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 90 Number: 33911 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33911 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33911/files/ae030824.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33911 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc Author-Name: Horan, Richard D. Author-Name: Smith, Mark E. Title: Economics of Water Quality Protection from Nonpoint Sources: Theory and Practice Abstract: Water quality is a major environmental issue. Pollution from nonpoint sources is the single largest remaining source of water quality impairments in the United States. Agriculture is a major source of several nonpoint-source pollutants, including nutrients, sediment, pesticides, and salts. Agricultural nonpoint pollution reduction policies can be designed to induce producers to change their production practices in ways that improve the environmental and related economic consequences of production. The information necessary to design economically efficient pollution control policies is almost always lacking. Instead, policies can be designed to achieve specific environmental or other similarly related goals at least cost, given transaction costs and any other political, legal, or informational constraints that may exist. This report outlines the economic characteristics of five instruments that can be used to reduce agricultural nonpoint source pollution (economic incentives, standards, education, liability, and research) and discusses empirical research related to the use of these instruments. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 113 Number: 33913 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33913 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33913/files/ae990782.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33913 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Calvin, Linda Author-Name: Cook, Roberta L. Author-Name: Denbaly, Mark Author-Name: Dimitri, Carolyn Author-Name: Glaser, Lewrene K. Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Author-Name: Jekanowski, Mark D. Author-Name: Kaufman, Phillip R. Author-Name: Krissoff, Barry Author-Name: Thompson, Gary D. Author-Name: Thornsbury, Suzanne Title: U.S. Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Marketing: Emerging Trade Practices, Trends, and Issues Abstract: In the past year, trade practices between fresh produce shippers and food retailers gained national attention. Shippers are concerned that recent retail consolidation has led to market power and the growing incidence of fees and services. Retailers argue that these new trade practices reflect their costs of doing business and the demands of consumers. Trade practices include fees such as volume discounts and slotting fees, as well as services like automatic inventory replenishment, special packaging, and requirements for third-party food safety certification. Trade practices also refer to the overall structure of a transaction-for example, long-term relationships or contracts versus daily sales with no continuing commitment. This study compares trade practices in 1999 with those prevalent in 1994, placing them in the broader context of the evolving shipper/retailer relationship. Most shippers and retailers reported that the incidence and magnitude of fees and services associated with transactions has increased over the last 5 years. Fees paid to retailers are usually around 1-2 percent of sales for most of the commodities we examined, but 1-8 percent for bagged salads. Information on the incidence and magnitude of these new practices is scarce. To augment information that is publicly available, we interviewed a limited number of shippers, retailers, and wholesalers about their firms and trade practices. We received a high level of voluntary cooperation from the interviewed firms. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 60 Number: 33915 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33915 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33915/files/ae010795.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33915 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Weimer, Jon P. Title: Factors Affecting Nutrient Intake of the Elderly Abstract: The rapid expansion of the population age 60 and older has a number of economic implications. The people in this group, about 18 percent of the population, account for about 30 percent of all health care expenditures. They use hospitals at nearly three times the rate of younger persons, average seven to eight medical visits per year, and occupy the majority of nursing residence beds. Providing information on the relationship of socio-economic and other factors to nutrient intake is basic to improving the health and well-being of the elderly. This exploratory investigation provides estimates of the effects of selected characteristics of the household and its constituents on individual nutrient consumption of elderly heads of households. Formal education was positively related to nutrient consumption. The elderly who live in households with income below 130 percent of the poverty level tended to have lower nutrient intakes than those elderly in households with higher incomes. Blacks, urbanites, and Southerners generally consumed less of the selected nutrients. Neither participation in the Food Stamp Program nor receipt of surplus foods was a significant factor in nutrient intake of elderly individuals. Possible nutrition interventions focus on targeted audiences and programs. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 13 Number: 33917 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33917 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33917/files/ae980769.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33917 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Durst, Ron L. Author-Name: Monke, James D. Title: EFFECTS OF FEDERAL TAX POLICY ON AGRICULTURE Abstract: This report analyzes the effects of the current Federal tax code on farming and evaluates tax proposals to assist beginning farmers. Investment, management, and production decisions in agriculture continue to be influenced by Federal tax laws. Farmers continue to benefit from both Federal income and estate tax policies targeted to agriculture. These provisions exert upward pressure on farmland values and help support ongoing trends that increase the number of very small and large farms. However, the influence of the current tax structure with lower marginal tax rates and a broader income base is less than in earlier decades and may be small relative to government farm programs. Tax proposals to assist beginning farmers would likely increase the availability of land for lease or purchase, but would do little to make land more affordable. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Public Economics Length: 52 Number: 33919 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33919 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33919/files/ae010800.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33919 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Diao, Xinshen Author-Name: Dyck, John H. Author-Name: Skully, David W. Author-Name: Somwaru, Agapi Author-Name: Lee, Chinkook Title: Structural Change and Agricultural Protection: Costs of Korean Agricultural Policy, 1975 and 1990 Abstract: The economic development of South Korea is often considered a model for developing countries. We use 1975 and 1990 data in a general equilibrium framework with a highly disaggregated sector specification to evaluate the opportunity cost of its agricultural protection. We show that although agriculture's share of the gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1975 and 1990, the cost of agricultural protection, as measured by the loss in GDP, did not fall. The larger gap between domestic and world prices for the protected sectors exacerbated the distortions in resource allocation. Simulated removal of 1990 agricultural border protection reduced the share of agricultural GDP to the level actually observed in 1996, demonstrating how protection can impede economic structural development. The public policy implication is for developing countries to adopt policies that help the agricultural sector become competitive. Otherwise, as in Korea, the resource costs of delaying adjustment grow over time. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 29 Number: 33921 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33921 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33921/files/ae020809.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33921 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gundersen, Craig Author-Name: Kuhn, Betsey A. Author-Name: Offutt, Susan E. Author-Name: Morehart, Mitchell J. Title: A CONSIDERATION OF THE DEVOLUTION OF FEDERAL AGRICULTURAL POLICY Abstract: Diverse needs and preferences across the United States provide justification for the devolution, or decentralization, of many Federal Government programs to the State or local level. The move toward devolution, however, has not been evidenced in U.S. agricultural policy, despite significant differences across States in such areas as commodity production, production costs, income distribution, and opportunities for off-farm work. The existing structure of USDA funding and program delivery already reflects an appreciation of the gains from devolution, with some programs accommodating differences in State and regional preferences. This report considers the implications of devolving $22 billion in 2003 budget outlays, mostly for domestic commodity and natural resource programs and rural development and housing programs. The local knowledge of needs and references is valuable and can provide the basis for increased program efficiency. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 19 Number: 33923 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33923 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33923/files/ae040836.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33923 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Author-Name: Plato, Gerald E. Title: Food Procurement by USDA's Farm Service Agency Abstract: USDA's Farm Service Agency (FSA) purchases food products for distribution through several of the Department's food assistance programs. This report describes FSA purchase methods and compares them to procurement strategies used by other Federal agencies and by private sector firms. It summarizes the principal policy issues faced by FSA in designing procurement strategies. And it uses a detailed statistical analysis to compare FSA prices to those realized in the private sector, and to identify the separate effects of agricultural commodity prices, seasonality, client location, purchase volumes, product characteristics, and competition on FSA product prices. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 60 Number: 33925 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33925 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33925/files/ae980766.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33925 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pray, Carl E. Author-Name: Fuglie, Keith O. Title: PRIVATE INVESTMENT IN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER IN ASIA Abstract: This study addresses the questions of future sources of technology for increasing food and agricultural production by considering the situation in Asia. This region of the world is particularly appropriate for studying these questions because of the dynamic changes in population and incomes. How much private research is there and what is it producing? Will the private sector compensate for declining public agricultural research investments in Asia? What can governments do to stimulate private research and protect farmers from harmful or defective technology? Agribusiness firm's R&D investments were evaluated in selected developing countries during 1996 and 1998 and compared with data from a similar study conducted in the mid-1980s. The largest amount of private research was in India where investment was about $55 million per year in the mid-1990s, followed by Thailand, Malaysia, and China. China's private R&D spending represents less than one one-hundredth of 1 percent of agricultural gross domestic product. In contrast, in Thailand and Malaysia, firms spent about 0.1 percent. From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, private sector R&D grew in real terms in the countries in our sample. However, at this rate, private research will not fill the gap needed to support rapid growth in demand for agricultural products. Foreign firms made an important contribution to private research in all of these countries. The most important policy that helped induce this growth was liberalization of industrial policy that allowed private and foreign firms to operate and expand in agricultural input industries. A second important policy was investments in public research. Patents and tax incentives seem to have had little effect so far, but could be important in the future. Keywords: Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 155 Number: 33927 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33927 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33927/files/ae010805.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33927 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Author-Name: Blayney, Donald P. Title: Structure of Dairy Markets: Past, Present, Future Abstract: The U.S. dairy industry, many segments of which supported dairy policy changes in the 1996 Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act, is much different than it was 20 or even 10 years ago. This report provides a historical overview of the industry, more detailed examinations of the fluid milk market and selected manufactured dairy product markets, a discussion of future prospects and trends in the industry, and some thoughts on the implications of those prospects and trends for dairy farmers and their organizations, processors, dairy product manufacturers, and retailers. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 60 Number: 33929 Creation-Date: 1997 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33929 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33929/files/ae970757.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33929 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge Author-Name: McBride, William D. Title: GENETICALLY ENGINEERED CROPS FOR PEST MANAGEMENT IN U.S. AGRICULTURE Abstract: Adoption of genetically engineered crops with traits for pest management has risen dramatically since their commercial introduction in the mid-1990's. The farm-level impacts of such crops on pesticide use, yields, and net returns vary with the crop and technology examined. Adoption of herbicide-tolerant cotton led to significant increase in yields and net returns, but was not associated with significant changes in herbicide use. On the other hand, increase in adoption of herbicide-tolerant soybeans led to small but significant increases in yields, no changes in net returns, and significant decreases in herbicide use. Adoption of Bt cotton in the Southeast significantly increased yields and net returns and significantly reduced insecticide use. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries Length: 20 Number: 33931 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33931 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33931/files/ae000786.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33931 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Darwin, Roy Author-Name: Tsigas, Marinos E. Author-Name: Lewandrowski, Jan Author-Name: Raneses, Anton Title: World Agriculture and Climate Change: Economic Adaptations Abstract: Recent studies suggest that possible global increases in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns during the next century will affect world agriculture. Because of the ability of farmers to adapt , however, these changes are not likely to imperil world food production. Nevertheless, world production of all goods and services may decline, if climate change is severe enough or if cropland expansion is hindered. Impacts are not equally distributed around the world. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 98 Number: 33933 Creation-Date: 1995 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33933 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33933/files/ae950703.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33933 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Runyan, Jack L. Title: PROFILE OF HIRED FARMWORKERS, 1998 ANNUAL AVERAGES Abstract: An average of 875,000 persons 15 years of age and older did hired farmwork each week as their primary job in 1998. An additional 63,000 people did hired farmwork each week as their secondary job. Hired farmworkers were more likely than the typical U.S. wage and salary worker to be male, Hispanic, younger, less educated, never married, and not U.S. citizens. The West (42 percent) and South (31.4 percent) census regions accounted for almost three-fourths of the hired farmworkers. The rate of unemployment in the hired farm labor force (11.8 percent) was more than double that (4.5 percent) for all wage and salary workers. Hired farmworkers were also more likely to be paid less than the minimum wage, and to be low-wage workers. Consequently, their median weekly earnings continued to be much lower than those of all wage and salary workers. However, hired farmworkers' real median weekly earnings increased 4 percent between 1990 and 1998, while earnings for all wage and salary workers increased only 2 percent. This report examines regional and structural patterns of farm labor use, and demographic and employment characteristics of hired farmworkers, using data from the 1997 Census of Agriculture and the 1998 Current Population Survey (CPS) earnings microdata file. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 41 Number: 33935 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33935 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33935/files/ae000790.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33935 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Osborne, Stefan Author-Name: Trueblood, Michael A. Title: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY AND EFFICIENCY IN RUSSIA AND UKRAINE: BUILDING ON A DECADE OF REFORM Abstract: This study examines the impact of agriculture-specific and economywide institutional reform in Russia and Ukraine on the productivity and efficiency of agricultural production. Production in the agricultural sector in Russia and Ukraine has fallen since reforms began in 1992. The decline is to a certain extent an inevitable result of reform as input and output prices realign to world prices. However, some of the decline is due to incomplete agriculture-specific and economywide institutional reform. Russia and Ukraine have the potential to increase grain exports significantly if reforms are implemented: the most likely scenario projects that wheat and barley exports from Russia and Ukraine could double from current projections, reaching 21 million metric tons by 2011. Keywords: Productivity Analysis Length: 29 Number: 33937 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33937 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33937/files/ae020813.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33937 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Golan, Elise H. Author-Name: Krissoff, Barry Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: Calvin, Linda Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Author-Name: Price, Gregory K. Title: TRACEABILITY IN THE U.S. FOOD SUPPLY: ECONOMIC THEORY AND INDUSTRY STUDIES Abstract: This investigation into the traceability baseline in the United States finds that private sector food firms have developed a substantial capacity to trace. Traceability systems are a tool to help firms manage the flow of inputs and products to improve efficiency, product differentiation, food safety, and product quality. Firms balance the private costs and benefits of traceability to determine the efficient level of traceability. In cases of market failure, where the private sector supply of traceability is not socially optimal, the private sector has developed a number of mechanisms to correct the problem, including contracting, third-party safety/quality audits, and industry-maintained standards. The best-targeted government policies for strengthening firms' incentives to invest in traceability are aimed at ensuring that unsafe of falsely advertised foods are quickly removed from the system, while allowing firms the flexibility to determine the manner. Possible policy tools include timed recall standards, increased penalties for distribution of unsafe foods, and increased foodborne-illness surveillance. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization Length: 48 Number: 33939 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33939 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33939/files/ae040830.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33939 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND FOOD SAFETY: ECONOMIC THEORY AND CASE STUDIES Abstract: Food safety regulations and the perception of risk are different among countries. This can lead to persistent trade frictions and even reduce food trade. These differences may also lead to increased dialogue between countries, with improved food safety systems the result. Although little disruption to trade has occurred for food safety reasons (considering the total volume of food trade), trade issues or crises related to food safety are wide ranging. These issues and crises challenge policymakers and industries to both protect domestic food supplies and nurture international markets. Meanwhile, consumers in developed countries are demanding safer food. Risk reduction measures and quality certification programs can not only pre-empt food safety crises, but can better position exporters in emerging overseas markets. However, coherency between trade and food safety goals requires public intervention and investment and/or private costs. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade Length: 139 Number: 33941 Creation-Date: 2003 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33941/files/ae030838.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33941 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Author-Name: Anderson, William D. Title: DEVELOPMENT AT THE URBAN FRINGE AND BEYOND: IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LAND Abstract: Land development in the United States is following two routes: expansion of urban areas and large-lot development (greater than 1 acre per house) in rural areas. Urban expansion claimed more than 1 million acres per year between 1960 and 1990, yet is not seen as a threat to most farming, although it may reduce production of some high-value or specialty crops. The consequences of continued large-lot development may be less sanguine, since it consumes much more land per unit of housing than the typical suburb. Controlling growth and planning for it are the domains of State and local governments. The Federal Government may be able to help them in such areas as building capacity to plan and control growth, providing financial incentives for channeling growth in desirable directions, or coordinating local, regional, and State efforts. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 80 Number: 33943 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33943 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33943/files/ae010803.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33943 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Liefert, William M. Author-Name: Swinnen, Johan F.M. Title: CHANGES IN AGRICULTURAL MARKETS IN TRANSITION ECONOMIES Abstract: Economic reform in the transition economies of the former Soviet bloc has transformed the volume and mix of these economies' agricultural production, consumption, and trade. Output drops in most countries have ranged from 25 to 50 percent. The livestock sector has been hit particularly hard, all but eliminating U.S. grain exports to the region. This report concludes that the output decline has been an inevitable part of market reform and that the main goal of agricultural policy in the transition economies should not be to return output to pre-reform levels but to increase the productivity of input use. Although reform has created a food security problem in some countries, the cause of the problem is not insufficient food supplies, but rather inadequate access to food by segments of the population and regions within countries. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 32 Number: 33945 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33945 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33945/files/ae020806.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33945 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dietrich, Raymond A. Author-Name: Smalley, H. Ronald Title: Exporting U.S. Red Meat and Poultry Products to Mexico in a Free Trade Environment Keywords: International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 115 Number: 33947 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33947 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33947/files/ae980768.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33947 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crutchfield, Stephen R. Author-Name: Feather, Peter Author-Name: Hellerstein, Daniel Title: Benefits of Protecting Rural Water Quality: An Empirical Analysis Abstract: Concerns about the impact of farm production on the quality of the Nation's drinking and recreational water resources have risen over the past 10 years. Because point sources of pollution were controlled first, agricultural nonpoint sources have become the Nation's largest remaining single water-quality problem. Both public and private costs of policies that address the conflict between agricultural production and water quality are relevant, but measuring the off-farm benefits and costs of changing water quality is difficult. Many of the values placed on these resources are not measured in traditional ways through market prices. This report explores the use of nonmarket valuation methods to estimate the benefits of protecting or improving rural water quality from agricultural sources of pollution. Two case studies show how these valuation methods can be used to include water-quality benefits estimates in economic analyses of specific policies to prevent or reduce water pollution. Keywords: Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 36 Number: 33949 Creation-Date: 1995 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33949 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33949/files/ae950701.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33949 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Landes, Rip Author-Name: Westcott, Paul C. Author-Name: Wainio, John Title: International Agricultural Baseline Projections to 2007 Abstract: This report provides baseline projections for international supply, demand, and trade for major agricultural commodities to 2007. It is a companion report to USDA Agricultural Baseline Projections, providing the foreign country details supporting those projections. Projections of strong global economic growth, particularly in developing countries, combined with more open foreign markets and the emergence of China as a major bulk commodity importer, support strong projected gains in U.S. farm exports. The value of total U.S. agricultural exports is projected to rise from a record $57.3 billion in FY 1997 to nearly $85 billion in 2007. The projections were completed based on information available as of December 1997, and reflect a composite of model results and analyst judgment. Keywords: Production Economics Length: 186 Number: 33951 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33951 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33951/files/ae980767.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33951 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stewart, Hayden Author-Name: Blisard, Noel Author-Name: Bhuyan, Sanjib Author-Name: Nayga, Rodolfo M., Jr. Title: THE DEMAND FOR FOOD AWAY FROM HOME: FULL-SERVICE OR FAST FOOD? Abstract: Consumer spending at full-service and fast food restaurants will continue to grow over the remainder of this decade and the next. However, the larger increase is predicted to occur at full-service restaurants. Simulations assuming modest growth in household income plus expected demographic developments show that per capita spending could rise by 18 percent at full-service restaurants and by 6 percent for fast food between 2000 and 2020. The assumed assumed increase in income alone causes such spending to rise by almost 15 percent and 7 percent at full-service and fast food restaurants, respectively. The increasing proportion of households containing a single person or multiple adults without live-at-home children will cause per person spending to rise by another 1 to 2 percent in each of these segments. However, the aging of the population will decrease spending on fast food by about 2 percent per capita. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 20 Number: 33953 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33953 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33953/files/ae040829.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33953 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McGranahan, David A. Title: NATURAL AMENITIES DRIVE RURAL POPULATION CHANGE Abstract: Climate, topography, and water area are highly related to rural county population change over the past 25 years. A natural amenities index, derived and discussed here, captures much of this relationship. Average 1970-96 population change in nonmetropolitan counties was I percent among counties low on the natural amenities index and 120 percent among counties high on the index. Most retirement counties and recreation counties score in the top quarter of the amenities index. Employment change is also highly related to natural amenities, although more so over the past 25 years than in the current decade. The importance of particular amentities varies by region. In the Midwest, for example, people are drawn to lakes for recreation and retirement, while people are attracted to the West for its varied topography. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 24 Number: 33955 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33955 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33955/files/ae990781.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33955 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge Author-Name: McBride, William D. Title: ADOPTION OF BIOENGINEERED CROPS Abstract: Use of crop biotechnology products, such as genetically engineered (GE) crops with input traits for pest management, has risen dramatically since commercial approval in the mid-1990s. This report addresses several of the economic dimensions regarding farmer adoption of bioengineered crops, including herbicidetolerant and insect-resistant varieties. In particular, the report examines: (1) the extent of adoption of bioengineered crops, their diffusion path, and expected adoption rates over the next few years; (2) factors affecting the adoption of bioengineered crops; and (3) farm-level impacts of the adoption of bioengineered crops. Data used in the analysis are mostly from USDA surveys. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 61 Number: 33957 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33957 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33957/files/ae020810.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33957 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, Biing-Hwan Author-Name: Variyam, Jayachandran N. Author-Name: Allshouse, Jane E. Author-Name: Cromartie, John Title: FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED STATES: LOOKING AHEAD TO 2020 Abstract: U.S. consumption of food commodities is projected to rise through the year 2020, mainly due to an increase in population. But the mix of commodities is expected to shift because of an older and more diverse population, rising income, higher educational attainment, improved diet and health knowledge, and growing popularity of eating out. This study analyzes data from USDA's food consumption survey to project the consumption, through the year 2020, of 25 food groups and 22 commodity groups. Per capita consumption of fish, poultry, eggs, yogurt, fruits, nuts and seeds, lettuce, tomatoes, some other vegetables, grains, and vegetable oils is predicted to rise, whereas consumption of beef, pork, other meat, milk, cheese, potatoes, and sugar is expected to fall. The growth of the at-home and away-from-home markets varies from one commodity to another. Fruit consumption is expected to lead all commodities in growth in the at-home market, and fish consumption is expected to lead in growth in the away-from-home market. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 58 Number: 33959 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33959 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33959/files/ae030820.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33959 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krissoff, Barry Author-Name: Ballenger, Nicole Author-Name: Dunmore, John C. Author-Name: Gray, Denice Title: Exploring Linkages Among Agriculture, Trade, and the Environment: Issues for the Next Century Abstract: Many trade and environment issues will confront agriculture over the next several years. This report provides an economic framework to better understand these issues and discusses prior empirical inquiries and findings. Four primary issues are addressed: (1) how will environmental policies affect agricultural trade?; (2) how will agricultural trade liberalization affect environmental quality?; (3) to what extent should there be international harmonization of environmental policies and product standards?; and (4) is there economic justification for using trade measures to protect the environment? This report demonstrates that basic economic paradigms can provide a basis for understanding how trade and the environment interact. The few empirical studies based on these concepts have found many of the linkages between trade and the environment to be weak or the effects small. Trade and environment issues remain important to monitor, however, because economic and environmental relationships and domestic and international policies are continually evolving, and decision-makers need good information to confirm or disprove the numerous hypotheses that have surfaced in international discussions. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 41 Number: 33961 Creation-Date: 1996 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33961 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33961/files/ae960738.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33961 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hellerstein, Daniel Author-Name: Nickerson, Cynthia J. Author-Name: Cooper, Joseph C. Author-Name: Feather, Peter Author-Name: Gadsby, Dwight M. Author-Name: Mullarkey, Daniel J. Author-Name: Tegene, Abebayehu Author-Name: Barnard, Charles H. Title: FARMLAND PROTECTION: THE ROLE OF PUBLIC PREFERENCES FOR RURAL AMENITIES Abstract: Public amenities provided by a rural agricultural landscape, arising from open space and farm activity, are important to many citizens and policymakers. Widespread development of farmland in some parts of the country has spawned an expanding array of farmland protection programs by county, State, and Federal governments, as well as by nonprofit organizations. To investigate the relative importance of preserving different amenities, this report examines the enabling legislation of these programs across the 48 contiguous States, and the implementation of these programs in five Northeastern States (Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Vermont). The report also assesses how farmland protection programs fit into the broader array of rural land conservation programs. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 66 Number: 33963 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33963 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33963/files/ae020815.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33963 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Newman, Constance Title: IMPACTS OF HISPANIC POPULATION GROWTH ON RURAL WAGES Abstract: Although earnings generally increased in rural areas in the 1990s, Hispanic population growth led to lower wages for at least one segment of the rural population- workers with a high school degree (skilled workers), particularly men in this skill group. Using data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis and the Current Population Survey, this report examines the effects of Hispanic population growth on rural wages. The analysis combines approaches from earlier immigration-impact studies and more recent work that incorporates the role of labor demand in the labor market. The analysis finds that labor demand shift factors and other area-specific factors that often are not included in immigration studies are important. Results indicate that labor demand increases favored skilled workers (those with a high school degree) overall but favored unskilled and professional workers in some rural industries. Thus, the increased supply of unskilled labor from Hispanic population growth led to lower wages for skilled men as a result of production changes in some parts of the rural economy. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 23 Number: 33965 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33965 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33965/files/ae030826.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33965 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mishra, Ashok K. Author-Name: El-Osta, Hisham S. Author-Name: Morehart, Mitchell J. Author-Name: Johnson, James D. Author-Name: Hopkins, Jeffrey W. Title: INCOME, WEALTH, AND THE ECONOMIC WELL-BEING OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Abstract: Agricultural policy is rooted in the 1930s notion that providing transfers of money to the farm sector translates into increased economic well-being of farm families. This report shows that changes in income for the farm sector or for any particular group of farm businesses do not necessarily reflect changes confronting farm households. Farm households draw income from various sources, including off-farm work, other businesses operated, and- increasingly - nonfarm investments. Likewise, focus on a single indicator of well-being, like income, overlooks other indicators such as the wealth held by the household and the level of consumption expenditures for health care, food, housing, and other items. Using an expanded definition of economic well-being, we show that farm households as a whole are relatively better off than the average U.S. household, but that about 6 percent remain economically disadvantaged relative to the rest of the population. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics Length: 73 Number: 33967 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33967 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33967/files/ae020812.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33967 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buzby, Jean C. Author-Name: Roberts, Tanya Author-Name: Allos, Ban Mishu Title: Estimated Annual Costs of Campylobacter-Associated Guillain-Barre Syndrome Abstract: Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) is an autoimmune reaction that can cause acute neuro-muscular paralysis. Of an estimated 2,628 to 9,575 new U.S. cases with GBS annually, 526 to 3,830 are triggered by infection with Campylobacter, the most frequently isolated cause of foodborne diarrhea. Estimated total annual costs of Campylobacter-associated GBS of $0.2 to $1.8 billion plus previously estimated costs of campylobacteriosis ($1.3 to $6.2 billion) add to total annual costs from Campylobacter of $1.5 to $8.0 billion (1995 dollars). Assuming 55-70 percent of costs are attributable to foodborne sources, costs of campylobacteriosis from food sources ($0.7 to $4.3 billion) and costs of associated GBS ($0.1 to $1.3 billion) combined equal total annual costs of $0.8 to $5.6 billion from foodborne Campylobacter. Reducing Campylobacter in food could prevent up to $5.6 billion in costs annually. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Health Economics and Policy Length: 33 Number: 33969 Creation-Date: 1997 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33969 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33969/files/ae970756.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33969 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McBride, William D. Author-Name: Key, Nigel D. Title: ECONOMIC AND STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS IN U.S. HOG PRODUCTION Abstract: Rapid change in the size and ownership structure of U.S. hog production has created new and varied challenges for the industry. This report describes an industry becoming increasingly concentrated among fewer and larger farms, and becoming more economically efficient. These changes have not come without problems. The increasing market control and power concentrated among packers and large hog operations, and the manure management problem posed by an increasing concentration of hog manure on fewer operations, are paramount concerns. Addressing these concerns through regulations would likely impose economic costs that could be passed on to consumers. In addition, the relative mobility of the hog industry means that regulations could result in significant changes in the location of hog production facilities, with ripple effects in local economies. Balancing environmental and economic interests will challenge policymakers dealing with the implications of structural change in U.S. hog production. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries Length: 60 Number: 33971 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33971 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33971/files/ae030818.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33971 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Martinez, Stephen W. Author-Name: Zering, Kelly D. Title: PORK QUALITY AND THE ROLE OF MARKET ORGANIZATON Abstract: This study addresses changes in the organization of the U.S. pork industry, most notably marketing contracts between packers and producers, by exploring their function in addressing pork quality concerns. A number of developments brought quality concerns to the forefront. These include health concerns and corresponding preferences for lean pork, a decline in other quality attributes, heightened concerns over food safety and related regulatory programs, and expansion into global markets. Organizational arrangements can facilitate industry efforts to address pork quality needs by reducing measuring costs, controlling quality attributes that are difficult to measure, facilitating adaptations to changing quality standards, and reducing transaction costs associated with relationship-specific investments in branding programs. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 45 Number: 33973 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33973 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33973/files/ae040835.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33973 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Mueller, Valerie Title: MANAGING FOR SAFER FOOD: THE ECONOMICS OF SANITATION AND PROCESS CONTROLS IN MEAT AND POULTRY PLANTS Abstract: Sanitation and process control costs increased the costs of producing meat and poultry by about 0.5 percent in the period preceding the promulgation of the Pathogen Reduction/Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (PR/HACCP) rule of 1996. However, there was no benefit in trying to avoid these costs. Large slaughter plants and all further-processing plants with poor performance of sanitation and food safety process controls were more likely to exit their industries than other plants. Moreover, the fraction of costs required for sanitation and process control was about the same for large plants as for small plants, suggesting that larger plants were no better able than small plants to absorb sanitation and process control costs. Results also suggest that PR/HACCP raised wholesale meat and poultry prices by about 1 percent. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 65 Number: 33975 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33975 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33975/files/ae030817.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33975 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bjornlund, Britta Author-Name: Cochrane, Nancy J. Author-Name: Haley, Mildred M. Author-Name: Hoskin, Roger Author-Name: Liefert, Olga Author-Name: Paarlberg, Philip L. Title: LIVESTOCK SECTORS IN THE ECONOMIES OF EASTERN EUROPE AND THE FORMER SOVIET UNION; TRANSITION FROM PLAN TO MARKET AND THE ROAD AHEAD Abstract: This report examines the restructuring of the livestock sectors in five countries: Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary, and Romania. All five countries experienced a decline in both animal inventories and meat output during the early years of transition away from a centrally planned economy. ERS, in cooperation with Purdue University, developed five general equilibrium models depicting the economies of each nation. The models were used to evaluate capital investment at different stages of production; the rise in land prices that would result from a better functioning land market; reduced marketing costs; increased availability of credit; and, the creation of off-farm employment to draw labor out of agriculture. The study identifies potential trade and investment opportunities, but emphasizes that this potential depends on the successful implementation of institutional and policy reforms. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries Length: 76 Number: 33977 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33977 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33977/files/ae020798.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33977 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Regional Trade Agreements and U.S. Agriculture Abstract: Regional trade agreements (RTA's) have become a fixture in the global trade arena. Their advocates contend that RTA's can serve as building blocks for multilateral trade liberalization. Their opponents argue that these trade pacts will divert trade from more efficient nonmember producing countries. U.S. agriculture can benefit from participating in RTA's and may lose when it does not. Agriculture is an important source of potential U.S. gains from RTA's. While the United States, as a global trader with diverse trade partners, can gain potentially more from global free trade than from RTA's, many recent RTA's have been more comprehensive in their liberalization of agricultural trade liberalization than the Uruguay Round. A strong multilateral process can help ensure that RTA's are trade creating, rather than protectionist. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 150 Number: 33979 Creation-Date: 1998 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33979/files/ae980771.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33979 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ahearn, Mary Clare Author-Name: Collender, Robert N. Author-Name: Diao, Xinshen Author-Name: Harrington, David H. Author-Name: Hoppe, Robert A. Author-Name: Korb, Penelope J. Author-Name: Makki, Shiva S. Author-Name: Morehart, Mitchell J. Author-Name: Roberts, Michael J. Author-Name: Roe, Terry L. Author-Name: Somwaru, Agapi Author-Name: Vandeveer, Monte Author-Name: Westcott, Paul C. Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Title: DECOUPLED PAYMENTS IN A CHANGING POLICY SETTING Abstract: The studies in this report analyze the effects of decoupled payments in the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act on recipient households, and assess land, labor, risk management, and capital market conditions that can lead to links between decoupled payments and production choices. Each study contributes a different perspective to understanding the response of U.S. farm households and production to decoupled income transfers. Some use new microdata on farm households collected through USDA's Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS), initiated in 1996, and its predecessor survey. These data are used to compare household and producer behavior and outcomes before and after the FAIR Act. Other studies use applied or conceptual models to characterize the impact of introducing decoupled payments. Collectively, the chapters represent an early stage in the empirical analysis of decoupled payments. The studies address many aspects of the payments' household impacts but remaining issues call for additional analysis. As the analytical paradigm changes with the evolution of farm programs, the development of appropriate data and models will improve our understanding of farm program impacts on the behavior and well-being of U.S. farm households, and the agricultural sector. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 62 Number: 33981 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33981 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33981/files/ae040838.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33981 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Claassen, Roger Author-Name: Hansen, LeRoy T. Author-Name: Peters, Mark Author-Name: Breneman, Vincent E. Author-Name: Weinberg, Marca Author-Name: Cattaneo, Andrea Author-Name: Feather, Peter Author-Name: Gadsby, Dwight M. Author-Name: Hellerstein, Daniel Author-Name: Hopkins, Jeffrey W. Author-Name: Johnston, Paul V. Author-Name: Morehart, Mitchell J. Author-Name: Smith, Mark Title: Agri-Environmental Policy at the Crossroads: Guideposts on a Changing Landscape Abstract: Agri-environmental policy is at a crossroads. Over the past 20 years, a wide range of policies addressing the environmental implications of agricultural production have been implemented at the Federal level. Those policies have played an important role in reducing soil erosion, protecting and restoring wetlands, and creating wildlife habitat. However, emerging agri-environmental issues, evolution of farm income support policies, and limits imposed by trade agreements may point toward a rethinking of agri-environmental policy. This report identifies the types of policy tools available and the design features that have improved the effectiveness of current programs. It provides an indepth analysis of one policy tool that may be an important component of a future policy package-agri-environmental payments. The analysis focuses on issues and tradeoffs that policymakers would face in designing a program of agri-environmental payments. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 73 Number: 33983 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33983 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33983/files/ae010794.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33983 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Caswell, Margriet Author-Name: Fuglie, Keith O. Author-Name: Ingram, Cassandra Author-Name: Jans, Sharon Author-Name: Kascak, Catherine Title: Adoption of Agricultural Production Practices: Lessons Learned from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project Abstract: The U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project was designed to characterize the extent of adoption of nutrient, pest, soil, and water management practices and to assess the factors that affect adoption for a wide range of management strategies across different natural resource regions. The project entailed the administration of a detailed field-level survey to farmers in 12 watersheds in the Nation to gather data on agricultural practices, input use, and natural resource characteristics associated with farming activities. The data were analyzed by the Economic Research Service using a consistent methodological approach with the full set of data to study the constraints associated with the adoption of micronutrients, N-testing, split nitrogen applications, green manure, biological pest controls, pest-resistant varieties, crop rotations, pheromones, scouting, conservation tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, grassed waterways, and irrigation. In addition to the combined-areas analyses, selected areas were chosen for analysis to illustrate the difference in results between aggregate and area-specific models. The unique sample design for the survey was used to explore the importance of field-level natural resource data for evaluating adoption at both the aggregate and watershed levels. Further analyses of the data illustrated how the adoption of specific management practices affects chemical use and crop yields. Keywords: Farm Management Length: 117 Number: 33985 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33985 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33985/files/ae010792.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33985 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sullivan, Patrick Author-Name: Hellerstein, Daniel Author-Name: Hansen, LeRoy T. Author-Name: Johansson, Robert C. Author-Name: Koenig, Steven R. Author-Name: Lubowski, Ruben N. Author-Name: McBride, William D. Author-Name: McGranahan, David A. Author-Name: Roberts, Michael J. Author-Name: Vogel, Stephen J. Author-Name: Bucholtz, Shawn Title: The Conservation Reserve Program: Economic Implications for Rural America Abstract: This report estimates the impact that high levels of enrollment in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) have had on economic trends in rural counties since the program's inception in 1985 until today. The results of a growth model and quasi-experimental control group analysis indicate no discernible impact by the CRP on aggregate county population trends. Aggregate employment growth may have slowed in some high-CRP counties, but only temporarily. High levels of CRP enrollment appear to have affected farm-related businesses over the long run, but growth in the number of other nonfarm businesses moderated CRP's impact on total employment. If CRP contracts had ended in 2001, simulation models suggest that roughly 51 percent of CRP land would have returned to crop production, and that spending on outdoor recreation would decrease by as much as $300 million per year in rural areas. The resulting impacts on employment and income vary widely among regions having similar CRP enrollments, depending upon local economic conditions. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 112 Number: 33987 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33987 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33987/files/ae040834.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33987 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: Buzby, Jean C. Author-Name: Lee, Fitzroy Author-Name: Aldrich, Lorna M. Title: User-Fee Financing of USDA Meat and Poultry Inspection Abstract: USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) finances about 13.5 percent of its budget outlays through user fees for overtime and unscheduled meat and poultry inspections. User fees play an increasingly important role in financing government programs, and FSIS has frequently requested expanded authority to charge user fees for more of its operations. Congress has consistently rejected the FSIS requests and has placed important restrictions on fees and the uses of fee revenue at those agencies that have been granted more extensive user fee authority. This report surveys the application of user-fees for financing meat and poultry inspection programs in other countries; reviews user-fee systems in other Federal agencies, particularly those with food and agricultural missions or regulatory responsibilities; and discusses the relevant economics literature on the use and design of user fees. Finally, we suggest several elements that should underlie the structure of user fees for meat and poultry inspection, should such a program be introduced. e Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Public Economics Length: 41 Number: 33989 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33989 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33989/files/ae990775.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33989 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buzby, Jean C. Author-Name: Roberts, Tanya Author-Name: Lin, Chung-Tung Jordan Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Title: Bacterial Foodborne Disease: Medical Costs and Productivity Losses Abstract: Microbial pathogens in food cause an estimated 6.5-33 million cases of human illness and up to 9,000 deaths in the United States each year. Over 40 different foodborne microbial pathogens, including fungi, viruses, parasites, and bacteria, are believed to cause human illnesses. For six bacterial pathogens, the costs of human illness are estimated to be $9.3-$12.9 billion annually. Of these costs, $2.9-$6.7 billion are attributed to foodborne bacteria. These estimates were developed to provide analytical support for USDA's Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems rule for meat and poultry. (Note that the parasite Toxoplasma gondii is not included in this report.) To estimate medical costs and productivity losses, ERS uses four severity categories for acute illnesses: those who did not visit a physician, visited a physician, were hospitalized, or died prematurely. The lifetime consequences of chronic disease are included in the cost estimates for E. coli O157:H7 and fetal listeriosis. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Health Economics and Policy Length: 93 Number: 33991 Creation-Date: 1996 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33991 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33991/files/ae960741.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33991 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gundersen, Craig Author-Name: LeBlanc, Michael Author-Name: Kuhn, Betsey A. Title: The Changing Food Assistance Landscape: The Food Stamp Program in a Post-Welfare Reform Environment Abstract: The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) dramatically transformed and continues to transform the food assistance landscape in the United States. The Act cut more funds from the Food Stamp Program than it did from any other program, through reductions in benefits per person and restrictions in eligibility. Despite these cuts, food stamps now have a more prominent role in the post-welfare reform social safety net because the largest cash-assistance entitlement program, Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), was replaced with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program, a nonentitlement program. This leaves the Food Stamp Program as one of the only remaining entitlement programs available to almost all low-income households. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 31 Number: 33993 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33993 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33993/files/ae990773.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33993 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: U.S. AGRICULTURE AND THE FREE TRADE AREA OF THE AMERICAS Abstract: The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), a free trade area under negotiation among the United States and 33 countries in the Western Hemisphere, will progressively liberalize trade and investment in the region. It is scheduled to become effective by the end of 2005. The FTAA will lead to a 6-percent increase in annual U.S. agricultural exports to the Hemisphere and a 3-percent increase in annual U.S. agricultural imports from the Hemisphere. The FTAA will increase annual U.S. agricultural exports and imports worldwide by about $1 billion each. The expansion of U.S. agricultural trade due to the FTAA will result from both the direct effect of trade liberalization and the indirect effect of accelerated economic growth in increasing agricultural demand in the Western Hemisphere. The FTAA complements the multilateral negotiations in the Doha Development Agenda, which have a broader agenda for agricultural reform. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 143 Number: 33995 Creation-Date: 2004 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33995/files/ae040827.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33995 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Torre Ugarte, Daniel de la Author-Name: Walsh, Marie E. Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Slinsky, Stephen P. Title: The Economic Impacts of Bioenergy Crop Production on U.S. Crop Production Abstract: In response to energy security concerns, alternative energy programs such as biomass energy systems are being developed to provide energy in the 21st century. For the biomass industry to expand, a variety of feedstocks will need to be utilized. Large scale production of bioenergy crops could have significant impacts on the United States agricultural sector in terms of quantities, prices and production location of traditional crops as well as farm income. Though a number of scenarios were examined to study the impact of bioenergy crop production on the agricultural sector, two cropland scenarios are presented in this report. Under the wildlife management scenario, the analysis indicates that, at $30/dry ton (dt) for switchgrass, $31.74/dt for willow and $32.90 for poplar, an estimated 19.4 million acres of cropland (8.2 million from CRP) could be used to produce 96 million dry tons of bioenergy crops annually at a profit greater than the profit created by existing uses for the land. In this scenario, traditional crop prices increase from 3 percent to 9 percent (depending on crop) and net farm income increases by $2.8 billion annually. At $40/dt of switchgrass, $42.32/dt for willow and $43.87/dt for poplar and assuming the production management scenario, an estimated 41.9 million acres (12.9 million from CRP) could be used to produce 188 million dry tons of biomass annually. Under this scenario, traditional crop prices increase by 8 to 14 percent and net farm income increases by $6 billion annually. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 49 Number: 33997 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33997 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33997/files/ae030816.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33997 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Regmi, Anita Author-Name: Gehlhar, Mark J. Author-Name: Wainio, John Author-Name: Vollrath, Thomas L. Author-Name: Johnston, Paul V. Author-Name: Kathuria, Nitin Title: MARKET ACCESS FOR HIGH-VALUE FOODS Abstract: Market access remains a major impediment for expansion of global trade in high-value foods, particularly processed foods. Countries use tariffs and other measures that effectively stimulate imports of relatively unprocessed agricultural commodities at the expense of processed products. Tariff escalation, in which tariffs rise with the level of processing, discourages trade in high-value foods, and trade remedy measures, such as antidumping duties, are concentrated among high-value products. Globalization has provided countries with easier access to capital and technology needed to produce processed food, further affecting trade patterns and markets for high-value foods. A uniform cut in tariffs increases trade in high-value foods more than trade in raw agricultural commodities and improves real wages in developing and developed countries. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 43 Number: 33999 Creation-Date: 2005 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.33999 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/33999/files/ae050840.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:33999 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harris, James Michael Author-Name: Kaufman, Phillip R. Author-Name: Martinez, Stephen W. Author-Name: Price, Charlene C. Title: THE U.S. FOOD MARKETING SYSTEM, 2002: COMPETITION, COORDINATION, AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS INTO THE 21ST CENTURY Abstract: This report focuses on recent trends in the food supply chain. Chapters on food manufacturing, wholesaling, grocery retailing, and food service provide a detailed overview of structure, performance, information systems, new technology, and foreign direct investments. The report also contains a comprehensive set of appendix tables containing sales, concentration, trade, productivity, and other indicators. At the time of publication, most of the data sets used in this report included data through the year 2000. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 95 Number: 34001 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34001 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34001/files/ae020811.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34001 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: King, Robert P. Author-Name: Leibtag, Ephraim S. Author-Name: Behl, Ajay S. Title: SUPERMARKET CHARACTERISTICS AND OPERATING COSTS IN LOW-INCOME AREAS Abstract: Whether the poor pay more for food than other income groups is an important question in food price policy research. Stores serving low-income shoppers differ in important ways from stores that receive less of their revenues from Food Stamp redemptions. Stores with more revenues from Food Stamps are generally smaller and older, and offer relatively fewer convenience services for shoppers. They also offer a different mix of products, with a relatively high portion of sales coming from meat and private-label products. Metro stores with high Food Stamp redemption rates lag behind other stores in the adoption of progressive supply chain and human resource practices. Finally, stores with the highest Food Stamp redemption rates have lower sales margins relative to other stores, but have significantly lower payroll costs as a percentage of sales. Overall, operating costs for stores with high Food Stamp redemption rates are not significantly different from those for stores with moderate Food Stamp redemption rates. If the poor do pay more, factors other than operating costs are likely to be the reason. Keywords: Marketing Length: 17 Number: 34003 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34003 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34003/files/ae040839.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34003 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Duffield, James A. Author-Name: Graboski, Michael S. Title: Estimating the Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol Abstract: Studies conducted since the late 1970's have estimated the net energy value of corn ethanol. However, variations in data and assumptions used among the studies have resulted in a wide range of estimates. This study identifies the factors causing this wide variation and develops a more consistent estimate. We conclude that the net energy value of corn ethanol has become positive in recent years due to technological advances in ethanol conversion and increased efficiency in farm production. We show that corn ethanol is energy efficient as indicated by an energy ratio of 1.24. Keywords: Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 18 Number: 34005 Creation-Date: 1995 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34005 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34005/files/ae950721.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34005 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gale, H. Frederick, Jr. Author-Name: Foreman, Linda F. Author-Name: Capehart, Thomas C., Jr. Title: TOBACCO AND THE ECONOMY: FARMS, JOBS, AND COMMUNITIES Abstract: Public health policies intended to reduce the incidence of smoking-related disease adversely affect thousands of tobacco farmers, manufacturers, and other businesses that produce, distribute, and sell tobacco products. This report assesses the likely impacts of declining tobacco demand, and identifies the types of workers, farms, businesses, and communities that are most vulnerable to loss of tobacco income and jobs. The dollar impact on the farm sector of a reduction in cigarette demand will be smaller than that experienced by manufacturing, wholesale, retail, and transportation businesses, but tobacco farms and their communities may have the most difficulty adjusting. Many tobacco farmers lack good alternatives to tobacco, and they have tobacco-specific equipment, buildings, and experience. Most communities will make the transition to a smaller tobacco industry with little difficulty, because tobacco accounts for a small share of the local economy. However, a number of counties depend on tobacco for a significant share of local income. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries Length: 40 Number: 34007 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34007 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34007/files/ae000789.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34007 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crutchfield, Stephen R. Author-Name: Buzby, Jean C. Author-Name: Roberts, Tanya Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Lin, Chung-Tung Jordan Title: Economic Assessment of Food Safety Regulations: The New Approach to Meat and Poultry Inspection Abstract: USDA is now requiring all Federally inspected meat and poultry processing and slaughter plants to implement a new system called Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) to reduce potentially harmful microbial pathogens in the food supply. This report finds that the benefits of the new regulations, which are the medical costs and productivity losses that are prevented when foodborne illnesses are averted, will likely exceed the costs, which include spending by firms on sanitation, temperature control, planning and training, and testing. Other, nonregulatory approaches can also improve food safety, such as providing market incentives for pathogen reduction, irradiation, and education and labeling to promote safe food handling and thorough cooking. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 24 Number: 34009 Creation-Date: 1997 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34009 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34009/files/ae970755.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34009 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc Author-Name: Bouzaher, Aziz Title: Atrazine: Environmental Characteristics and Economics of Management Abstract: Restricting or eliminating the use of atrazine in the Midwest would have important economic consequences for farmers and consumers. Atrazine is an important herbicide in the production of corn and other crops in the United States. Since atrazine is such an important herbicide, mandatory changes in application strategies are likely to generate sizable costs for producers and consumers. However, recent findings indicate that elevated amounts of atrazine are running off fields and entering surface water resources. This report presents the costs and benefits of an atrazine ban, a ban on pre-plant and pre-emergent applications, and a targeted ban to achieve a surface water standard. A complete atrazine ban is hypothesized to be the costliest strategy, while the targeted strategy is the least costly. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries Length: 22 Number: 34011 Creation-Date: 1994 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34011 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34011/files/ae940699.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34011 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Perry, Janet E. Author-Name: Ahearn, Mary Clare Author-Name: Banker, David E. Author-Name: Chambers, William Author-Name: Dimitri, Carolyn Author-Name: Key, Nigel D. Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Author-Name: Southard, Leland W. Title: Contracts, Markets, and Prices: Organizing the Production and Use of Agricultural Commodities Abstract: Production and marketing contracts govern 36 percent of the value of U.S. agricultural production, up from 12 percent in 1969. Contracts are now the primary method of handling sales of many livestock commodities, including milk, hogs, and broilers, and of major crops such as sugar beets, fruit, and processing tomatoes. Use of contracts is closely related to farm size; farms with $1 million or more in sales have nearly half their production under contract. For producers, contracting can reduce income risks of price and production variability, ensure market access, and provide higher returns for differentiated farm products. For processors and other buyers, vertical coordination through contracting is a way to ensure the flow of products and to obtain differentiated products, ensure traceability for health concerns, and guarantee certain methods of production. The traditional spot market-though it still governs nearly 60 percent of the value of agricultural production- has difficulty providing accurate price signals for products geared to new consumer demands (such as produce raised and certified as organic or identity-preserved crops modified for special attributes). We are likely to see a continuing shift to more explicit forms of vertical coordination, through contracts and processor ownership, as a means to ensure more consistent product quantity and quality. Keywords: Marketing, Production Economics Length: 81 Number: 34013 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34013 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34013/files/ae040837.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34013 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Diao, Xinshen Author-Name: Elbehri, Aziz Author-Name: Gehlhar, Mark J. Author-Name: Gibson, Paul R. Author-Name: Leetmaa, Susan E. Author-Name: Mitchell, Lorraine Author-Name: Nelson, Frederick J. Author-Name: Nimon, R. Wesley Author-Name: Normile, Mary Anne Author-Name: Roe, Terry L. Author-Name: Shapouri, Shahla Author-Name: Skully, David W. Author-Name: Smith, Mark Author-Name: Somwaru, Agapi Author-Name: Trueblood, Michael A. Author-Name: Tsigas, Marinos E. Author-Name: Wainio, John Author-Name: Whitley, Daniel B. Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Title: AGRICULTURAL POLICY REFORM IN THE WTO: THE ROAD AHEAD Abstract: Agricultural trade barriers and producer subsidies inflict real costs, both on the countries that use these policies and on their trade partners. Trade barriers lower demand for trade partners' products, domestic subsidies can induce an oversupply of agricultural products which depresses world prices, and export subsidies create increased competition for producers in other countries. Eliminating global agricultural policy distortions would result in an annual world welfare gain of $56 billion. High protection for agricultural commodities in the form of tariffs continues to be the major factor restricting world trade. In 2000, World Trade Organization (WTO) members continued global negotiations on agricultural policy reform. To help policymakers and others realize what is at stake in the global agricultural negotiations, this report quantifies the costs of global agricultural distortions and the potential benefits of their full elimination. It also analyzes the effects on U.S. and world agriculture if only partial reform is achieved in liberalizing tariffs, tariff-rate quotas (limits on imported goods), domestic support, and export subsidies. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 116 Number: 34015 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34015 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34015/files/ae010802.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34015 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bolling, H. Christine Author-Name: Neff, Steven Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Title: U.S. Foreign Direct Investment in the Western Hemisphere Processed Food Industry Abstract: Foreign direct investment (FDI) has become the leading means for U.S. processed food companies to participate in international markets. Affiliates of U.S.-owned food processing companies had $30 billion in sales throughout the Western Hemisphere in 1995, nearly 4 times the level of processed food exports. This report puts U.S. foreign direct investment and trade in processed foods to the region into global perspective, and finds evidence that, in the aggregate for the 1990's, trade and FDI are complementary--not competitive--means of accessing international food markets. Incomes have grown sufficiently in most countries to support growth in affiliate sales and U.S. exports, indicating a strong demand for a wide variety of processed foods. Keywords: Agribusiness, International Relations/Trade Length: 63 Number: 34017 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34017 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34017/files/ae980760.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34017 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Runyan, Jack L. Title: Profile of Hired Farmworkers, 1996 Annual Averages Abstract: Examines demographic and employment characteristics of the 906,000 persons 15 years of age and older who did hired farmwork in 1996. Approximately 906,000 persons 15 years of age and older were employed as hired farmworkers each week in 1996. An additional 72,000 persons were hired as farmworkers each week as a secondary job. Hired farmworkers were more likely than all U.S. wage and salary workers to be male, Hispanic, younger, less educated, never married, and non-U.S. citizens. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 28 Number: 34019 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34019 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34019/files/ae980762.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34019 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Title: CONSOLIDATION IN U.S. MEATPACKING Abstract: Meatpacking consolidated rapidly in the last two decades: slaughter plants became much larger, and concentration increased as smaller firms left the industry. We use establishment-based data from the U.S. Census Bureau to describe consolidation and to identify the roles of scale economies and technological change in driving consolidation. Through the 1970's, larger plants paid higher wages, generating a pecuniary scale diseconomy that largely offset the cost advantages that technological scale economies offered large plants. The larger plants' wage premium disappeared in the 1980's, and technological change created larger and more extensive technological scale economies. As a result, large plants realized growing cost advantages over smaller plants, and production shifted to larger plants. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 42 Number: 34021 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34021 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34021/files/ae000785.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34021 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Golan, Elise H. Author-Name: Vogel, Stephen J. Author-Name: Frenzen, Paul D. Author-Name: Ralston, Katherine L. Title: TRACING THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF IMPROVEMENTS IN FOOD SAFETY: THE CASE OF HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT PROGRAM FOR MEAT AND POULTRY Abstract: The level and distribution of the costs and benefits of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulatory program for meat and poultry change dramatically once economywide effects are included in the analysis. Using a Social Accounting Matrix Model, we find that reduced premature deaths had a strong positive effect on household income, with economywide benefits almost double initial benefits. Contrary to expectations, reduced medical expenses resulted in a decrease in household income, while HACCP costs resulted in an increase. Net economywide benefits were slightly larger than initial net benefits, with poor households receiving a proportionally smaller share of the increased benefits than nonpoor because of their weak ties to the economy. Our SAM analysis provides policymakers useful information about who ultimately benefits from reduced foodborne illnesses and who ultimately pays the costs of food safety regulation. This analysis also sheds light on a number of issues central to cost-benefit analysis involving health, highlighting the danger of equating changes in income with changes in well-being. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 28 Number: 34023 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34023 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34023/files/ae000791.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34023 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crutchfield, Stephen R. Author-Name: Cooper, Joseph C. Author-Name: Hellerstein, Daniel Title: Benefits of Safer Drinking Water: The Value of Nitrate Reduction Abstract: Nitrates in drinking water, which may come from nitrogen fertilizers applied to crops, are a potential health risk. This report evaluates the potential benefits of reducing human exposure to nitrates in the drinking water supply. In a survey, respondents were asked a series of questions about their willingness to pay for a hypothetical water filter, which would reduce their risk of nitrate exposure. If nitrates in the respondent's drinking water were to exceed the EPA minimum safety standard, they would be willing to pay $45 to $60, per household, per month, to reduce nitrates in their drinking water to the minimum safety standard. There are 2.9 million households in the four regions studied (White River area of Indiana, Central Nebraska, Lower Susquehanna, and Mid-Columbia Basin in Washington). If all households potentially at risk were protected from excessive nitrates in drinking water the estimated benefits would be $350 million. Keywords: Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 18 Number: 34025 Creation-Date: 1997 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34025 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34025/files/ae970752.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34025 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Feather, Peter Author-Name: Hellerstein, Daniel Author-Name: Hansen, LeRoy T. Title: Economic Valuation of Environmental Benefits and the Targeting of Conservation Programs: The Case of the CRP Abstract: The range of environmental problems confronting agriculture has expanded in recent years. As the largest program designed to mitigate the negative environmental effects of agriculture, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) has broadened its initial focus on reductions in soil erosion to consider other landscape factors that may also be beneficial. For example, preserving habitats can help protect wildlife, thus leading to more nature-viewing opportunities. This report demonstrates how nonmarket valuation models can be used in targeting conservation programs such as the CRP. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 60 Number: 34027 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34027 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34027/files/ae990778.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34027 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duffield, James A. Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Graboski, Michael S. Author-Name: McCormick, Robert Author-Name: Wilson, Richard Title: U.S. Biodiesel Development: New Markets for Conventional and Genetically Modified Agricultural Products Abstract: With environmental and energy source concerns on the rise, using agricultural fats and oils as fuel in diesel engines has captured increasing attention. Substituting petroleum diesel with biodiesel may reduce air emissions, increase the domestic supply of fuel, and create new markets for farmers. U.S. agricultural fats and oils could support a large amount of biodiesel, but high production costs and competing uses for biodiesel feedstocks will likely prevent mass adoption of biodiesel fuel. Higher-priced niche markets could develop for biodiesels as a result of environmental regulations. Biodiesel has many environmental advantages relative to petroleum diesel, such as lower CO, CO2, SOx, and particulate matter emissions. Enhancing fuel properties by genetically modifiying oil crops could improve NOx emissions, cold flow, and oxidative stability, which have been identified as potential problems for biodiesel. Research activities need to be directed toward cost reduction, improving fuel properties, and analyzing the economic effects of biodiesel development on U.S. agriculture. Keywords: Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 35 Number: 34029 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34029 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34029/files/ae980770.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34029 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Martinez, Stephen W. Title: Vertical Coordination in the Pork and Broiler Industries: Implications for Pork and Chicken Products Abstract: Recent changes in structure of the U.S. pork industry reflect, in many ways, past changes in the broiler industry. Production contracts and vertical integration in the broiler industry facilitated rapid adoption of new technology, improved quality control, assured market outlets for broilers, and provided a steady flow of broilers for processing. Affordable, high-quality chicken products have contributed to continual increases in U.S. chicken consumption, which has surpassed pork and beef on a per capita basis. Incentives for contracting and vertical integration in the pork industry may yield comparable results. If so, these arrangements might be expected to result in larger supplies of higher quality pork products at economical prices. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries Length: 43 Number: 34031 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34031 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34031/files/ae990777.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34031 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Claassen, Roger Author-Name: Breneman, Vincent E. Author-Name: Bucholtz, Shawn Author-Name: Cattaneo, Andrea Author-Name: Johansson, Robert C. Author-Name: Morehart, Mitchell J. Title: ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE IN U.S. AGRICULTURAL POLICY: PAST PERFORMANCE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL Abstract: Since 1985, U.S. agricultural producers have been required to practice soil conservation on highly erodible cropland and conserve wetlands as a condition of farm program eligibility. This report discusses the general characteristics of compliance incentives, evaluates their effectiveness in reducing erosion in the program's current form, and explores the potential for expanding the compliance approach to address nutrient runoff from crop production. While soil erosion has, in fact, been reduced on land subject to Conservation Compliance, erosion is also down on land not subject to Conservation Compliance, indicating the influence of other factors. Analysis to isolate the influence of Conservation Compliance incentives from other factors suggests that about 25 percent of the decline in soil erosion between 1982 and 1997 can be attributed to Conservation Compliance. This report also finds that compliance incentives have likely deterred conversion of noncropped highly erodible land and wetland to cropland, and that a compliance approach could be used effectively to address nutrient runoff from crop production. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 50 Number: 34033 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34033 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34033/files/ae040832.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34033 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Westcott, Paul C. Author-Name: Price, J. Michael Title: ANALYSIS OF THE U.S. COMMODITY LOAN PROGRAM WITH MARKETING LOAN PROVISIONS Abstract: Over the next several years, crop prices are projected to be below to slightly above commodity loan rates. As a result, marketing loan benefits to farmers, in the form of loan deficiency payments and marketing loan gains from the commodity loan program, are likely to continue to be sizeable. The level of realized per-unit revenues facilitated by marketing loans exceeds commodity loan rates, thereby raising expected net returns to farmers. Model simulations show that the loan program can raise total acreage planted to major field crops, generally increasing levels of domestic use and exports while lowering crop prices. Cross-commodity effects of supply response to relative returns (including marketing loan benefits), however, result in acreage shifts among competing crops, which can lead to reductions in plantings of some crops in some years. Most impacts occur in the years when there are marketing loan benefits, with little effect in subsequent years when prices rise high enough to eliminate marketing loan benefits. The livestock sector benefits from these outcomes because of generally lower feed costs. Keywords: Agricultural Finance Length: 22 Number: 34035 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34035 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34035/files/ae010801.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34035 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: Golan, Elise H. Title: ASSIGNING VALUES TO LIFE: COMPARING METHODS FOR VALUING HEALTH RISKS Abstract: We examine five approaches economists and health policy analysts have developed for evaluating policy affecting health a safety: cost-of-illness, willingness-to-pay, cost-effectiveness analysis, risk-risk analysis, and health-health analysis. We examine the theoretical basis and empirical application of each approach and investigate the influences that assumptions embedded in each approach have on policy guidance. We reach four principal conclusions. First, the approaches are not interchangeable: they measure different things. Even estimates using the same approach are often not comparable because, in practice, there is little consistency in the application of any of the approaches. Second, the usefulness of each approach depends on the unit of account. The philosophical decision to eschew the monetization of health costs or benefits constrains the ability of the approach to rank policy options and to gauge the social desirability of policy. Third, all of the approaches except risk-risk analysis and one variation of cost-effectiveness analysis incorporate the effects of income and circumstance. As a result, policy guidance could be influenced by the distribution of income. Fourth, the theory and practice of willingness-to-pay estimation are in opposition. While it is now common practice for regulatory agencies to adopt the willingness-to-pay approach for estimating health and safety benefits, they do so by assuming away the importance of individual preferences. We build on these four conclusions to suggest the appropriate use of each approach. Keywords: Health Economics and Policy Length: 72 Number: 34037 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34037 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34037/files/ae990784.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34037 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Racial/Ethnic Minorities in Rural Areas: Progress and Stagnation, 1980-90 Abstract: Rural minorities lag behind rural Whites and urban minorities on many crucial economic and social measures. This report examines rural Black, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander populations and their economic well-being in the 1980's, an economically difficult decade for rural areas. Results show minimal minority progress as measured by changes in occupation, income, and poverty rates. However, the type and speed of progress was quite different among minority groups and between men and women of the same minority group. Results showed considerable diversity among groups in the characteristics that were associated with poor economic outcomes. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 153 Number: 34039 Creation-Date: 1996 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34039/files/ae960731.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34039 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Blisard, Noel Author-Name: Stewart, Hayden Author-Name: Jolliffe, Dean Title: LOW-INCOME HOUSEHOLDS' EXPENDITURES ON FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Abstract: This report analyzes fruit and vegetable expenditures by low-income households and higher income households, and compares the sensitivity of both groups' purchases to changes in income. On average, low-income households spent $3.59 per capita per week on fruits and vegetables in 2000 while higher income households spent $5.02-a statistically significant difference. In addition, a statistical demand model indicates that marginal increases in income received by low-income households are not spent on additional fruits and vegetables. In contrast, increases in income received by higher income households do increase their fruit and vegetable expenditures. One interpretation of this finding is that low-income households will allocate an additional dollar of income to other food or nonfood items deemed more essential to the household such as meats, clothing, or housing. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 27 Number: 34041 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34041 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34041/files/ae040833.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34041 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Author-Name: Wiebe, Keith D. Author-Name: Claassen, Roger Author-Name: Gadsby, Dwight M. Author-Name: House, Robert M. Title: Wetlands and Agriculture: Private Interests and Public Benefits Abstract: Society has recently increased the value it places on the services that wetlands provide, including water quality improvements, flood control, wildlife habitat, and recreation. However, owners of wetlands are often unable to profit from these services because the benefits created are freely enjoyed by many. This report examines differences between public and private incentives regarding wetlands. Federal wetland policy has shifted in recent decades--from encouraging wetland conversion to encouraging wetland protection and restoration--in an effort to balance public and private objectives. The report assesses the need for continued wetlands protection policies as the United States approaches achieving the goal of no net loss of wetlands. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 99 Number: 34043 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34043 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34043/files/ae980765.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34043 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Blisard, Noel Author-Name: Variyam, Jayachandran N. Author-Name: Cromartie, John Title: FOOD EXPENDITURES BY U.S. HOUSEHOLDS: LOOKING AHEAD TO 2020 Abstract: By 2020, the effects of demographic changes and income growth will increase per capita spending on food 7.1 percent. Income growth alone, which will effect spending increases of almost 10 percent on away-from-home foods and 3 percent on at-home foods, will raise per capita food spending about 6 percent. Expansion of the Nation's population will drive growth in food demand and, combined with rising incomes and other demographic changes, is projected to boost total U.S. food spending 26.3 percent. On a national level, the slow but steady growth of the population will result in little variation among expenditure growth levels of individual food groups. The largest projected increase is for fruits, up 27.5 percent, while the smallest is for both beef and beverages, up 21.1 percent. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 35 Number: 34045 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34045 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34045/files/ae030821.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34045 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shane, Mathew Author-Name: Roe, Terry L. Author-Name: Gopinath, Munisamy Title: U.S. Agricultural Growth and Productivity: An Economywide Perspective Abstract: Growth of U.S. agriculture is dependent on increases in productivity, three-fourths of which is accounted for by public investment in agricultural research and development (R&D) and infrastructure, according to this research. Productivity growth in U.S. agriculture benefits consumers by putting downward pressure on real primary and processed food prices. Moreover, maintaining export growth in international markets relies on relative productivity growth against major competitors. Public investments in agricultural R&D have stagnated since the mid-1970's, raising questions about sustained productivity growth in U.S. agriculture. Keywords: International Development, Productivity Analysis Length: 17 Number: 34047 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34047 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34047/files/ae980758.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34047 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Madison, Milton E. Title: STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN U.S. CHICKEN AND TURKEY SLAUGHTER Abstract: Cost function analyses using data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census reveal substantial scale economies in chicken and turkey slaughter. These economies show no evidence of diminishing as plant size increases, are much greater than those realized in cattle and hog slaughter, and have resulted in a huge increase in plant size over the 1972-92 period. The findings also suggest that consolidation in the chicken and turkey slaughter industry is likely to continue, particularly if the growth in the demand for poultry diminishes. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries Length: 45 Number: 34049 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34049 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34049/files/ae000787.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34049 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Martinez, Stephen W. Title: VERTICAL COORDINATION OF MARKETING SYSTEMS: LESSONS FROM THE POULTRY, EGG, AND PORK INDUSTRIES Abstract: The economic development of South Korea is often considered a model for developing countries. We use 1975 and 1990 data in a general equilibrium framework with a highly disaggregated sector specification to evaluate the opportunity cost of its agricultural protection. We show that although agriculture's share of the gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1975 and 1990, the cost of agricultural protection, as measured by the loss in GDP, did not fall. The larger gap between domestic and world prices for the protected sectors exacerbated the distortions in resource allocation. Simulated removal of 1990 agricultural border protection reduced the share of agricultural GDP to the level actually observed in 1996, demonstrating how protection can impede economic structural development. The public policy implication is for developing countries to adopt policies that help the agricultural sector become competitive. Otherwise, as in Korea, the resource costs of delaying adjustment grow over time. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 41 Number: 34051 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34051 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34051/files/ae020807.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34051 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Elitzak, Howard Title: Food Cost Review, 1950-97 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 2.6 percent in 1997. This increase was greater than the overall increase in the CPI (which rose 2.3 percent) for the third consecutive year. Higher charges for processing and distributing food, as measured by the farm-to-retail price spread, were primarily responsible for the 1997 increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, dropped 4.4 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1997 was 23 percent, a decrease of 2 percent from 1996. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 4.7 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 54 Number: 34053 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34053 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34053/files/ae990780.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34053 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gibson, Paul R. Author-Name: Wainio, John Author-Name: Whitley, Daniel B. Author-Name: Bohman, Mary Title: PROFILES OF TARIFFS IN GLOBAL AGRICULTURAL MARKETS Abstract: High protection for agricultural commodities in the form of tariffs continues to be the major factor restricting world trade. The large differences in average tariffs across countries make it possible for farmers in one country to benefit from tariff protection while farmers in other countries lose income because of lower prices resulting from those tariffs. This report provides the first comprehensive analysis of agricultural tariffs and tariff-rate quotas (limits on imported goods) across a large number of countries and commodities and finds that high average tariffs create barriers to markets for U.S. and other farmers. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 44 Number: 34055 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34055 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34055/files/ae010796.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34055 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: DECOUPLED PAYMENTS: HOUSEHOLD INCOME TRANSFERS IN CONTEMPORARY U.S. AGRICULTURE Abstract: Decoupled payments are lump-sum income transfers to farm operators that do not depend on current production, factor use, or commodity prices. Such payments are not currently constrained by global trade rules, but many countries argue that they distort production and trade and that their use should be limited. This report examines the U.S. experience with decoupled payments in its Production Flexibility Contracts program under the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act of 1996. The payments have improved the well-being of recipient farm households, enabling them to comfortably increase spending, savings, investments, and leisure but with minimal distortion of U.S. agricultural production and trade. However, farm operators may retain as little as 40 percent of program benefits due to higher land rents. While commercial farms received the largest share of decoupled payments, they rent in over two-thirds of their program acres, which suggests that a sizable portion of their program benefits may be passed through to nonfarming landowners. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics Length: 29 Number: 34057 Creation-Date: 2003 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34057/files/ae030822.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34057 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frenzen, Paul D. Author-Name: Buzby, Jean C. Author-Name: Rasco, Barbara Title: PRODUCT LIABILITY AND MICROBIAL FOODBORNE ILLNESS Abstract: This report examines how product liability law treats personal injuries attributed to microbially contaminated foods. The risk of lawsuits stemming from microbial foodborne illness and the resulting court-awarded compensation may create economic incentives for firms to produce safer food. It is not known how many consumers seek compensation for damages from contaminated foods because information about complaints and legal claims involving foodborne illness is not readily accessible, especially for cases that are settled out of court. Reviewing the outcomes of 175 jury trials involving foodborne pathogens, the analysis identifies several factors that influence trial outcomes, while noting that the awards won by plaintiffs tend to be modest. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 41 Number: 34059 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34059 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34059/files/ae010799.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34059 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starke, Yolanda Author-Name: Ralston, Katherine L. Author-Name: Brent, C. Philip Author-Name: Riggins, Toija Author-Name: Lin, Chung-Tung Jordan Title: CONSUMER FOOD SAFETY BEHAVIOR: A CASE STUDY IN HAMBURGER COOKING AND ORDERING Abstract: More Americans are eating hamburgers more well-done than in the past, according to national surveys. This change reduced the risk of E. coli O157:H7 infection by an estimated 4.6 percent and reduced associated medical costs and productivity losses by an estimated $7.4 million annually. In a 1996 survey, respondents who were more concerned about the risk of foodborne illness cooked and ordered hamburgers more well-done than those who were less concerned. However, respondents who strongly preferred hamburgers less well-done cooked and ordered them that way, even after accounting for their concern about the risk of illness. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 29 Number: 34061 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34061 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34061/files/ae020804.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34061 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gallagher, Paul W. Author-Name: Dikeman, Mark Author-Name: Fritz, John Author-Name: Wailes, Eric J. Author-Name: Gauthier, Wayne M. Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Title: BIOMASS FROM CROP RESIDUES: COST AND SUPPLY ESTIMATES Abstract: The supply of harvested crop residues as a feed stock for energy products is estimated in this report. The estimates account for economic and environmental factors governing residue supply. The supply results span major agricultural crops in four distinct cropping regions of the United States, taking into account local variation in cost-determining factors such as residue yield, geographic density of residues, and competition for livestock feed use. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 26 Number: 34063 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34063 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34063/files/ae030819.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34063 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kaufman, Phillip R. Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Lutz, Steve M. Author-Name: Smallwood, David M. Title: Do the Poor Pay More for Food? Item Selection and Price Differences Affect Low-Income Household Food Costs Abstract: Low-income households may face higher food prices for three reasons: (1) on average, low-income households may spend less in supermarkets--which typically offer the lowest prices and greatest range of brands, package sizes, and quality choices; (2) low-income households are less likely to live in suburban locations where food prices are typically lower; and (3) supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods may charge higher prices than those in nearby higher income neighborhoods. Despite the prevailing higher prices, surveys of household food expenditures show that low-income households typically spend less than other households, on a per unit basis, for the foods they buy. Low-income households may realize lower costs by selecting more economical foods and lower quality items. In areas where food choices are limited due to the kinds and locations of foodstores, households may have sharply higher food costs. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 27 Number: 34065 Creation-Date: 1997 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34065 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34065/files/ae970759.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34065 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Burfisher, Mary E. Title: THE ROAD AHEAD: AGRICULTURAL POLICY REFORM IN THE WTO -- SUMMARY REPORT Abstract: Agricultural trade barriers and producer subsidies inflict real costs, both on the countriesvthat use these policies and on their trade partners. Trade barriers lower demand for trade partners' products, domestic subsidies can induce an oversupply of agricultural products which depresses world prices, and export subsidies create increased competition for producers in other countries. Eliminating global agricultural policy distortions would result in an annual world welfare gain of $56 billion. High protection for agricultural commodities in the form of tariffs continues to be the major factor restricting world trade. In 2000, World Trade Organization (WTO) members continued global negotiations on agricultural policy reform. To help policymakers and others realize what is at stake in the global agricultural negotiations, this report quantifies the costs of global agricultural distortions and the potential benefits of their full elimination. It also analyzes the effects on U.S. and world agriculture if only partial reform is achieved in liberalizing tariffs, tariff-rate quotas (limits on imported goods), domestic support, and export subsidies. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 26 Number: 34067 Creation-Date: 2001 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34067 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34067/files/ae010797.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34067 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Golan, Elise H. Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: Mitchell, Lorraine Title: ECONOMICS OF FOOD LABELING Abstract: Federal intervention in food labeling is often proposed with the aim of achieving a social goal such as improving human health and safety, mitigating environmental hazards, averting international trade disputes, or supporting domestic agricultural and food manufacturing industries. Economic theory suggests, however, that mandatory food-labeling requirements are best suited to alleviating problems of asymmetric information and are rarely effective in redressing environmental or other spillovers associated with food production and consumption. Theory also suggests that the appropriate role for government in labeling depends on the type of information involved and the level and distribution of the costs and benefits of providing that information. This report traces the economic theory behind food labeling and presents three case studies in which the government has intervened in labeling and two examples in which government intervention has been proposed. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 41 Number: 34069 Creation-Date: 2000 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34069 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34069/files/ae000793.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34069 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Author-Name: Kantor, Linda Scott Title: Moving Toward the Food Guide Pyramid: Implications for U.S. Agriculture Abstract: Recent studies show that average diets differ considerably from Food Guide Pyramid recommendations. The gap between current consumption and recommendations is particularly large for caloric sweeteners, fats and oils, fruits, and certain vegetables, notably dark-green leafy and deep-yellow vegetables, and dry beans, peas, and lentils. The change in food consumption needed to meet Food Guide Pyramid serving recommendations will result in adjustments in U.S. agricultural production, trade, nonfood uses, and prices. The net adjustment in crop acreage is projected to be relatively small, about 2 percent of total cropland in 1991-95. However, this small net adjustment masks larger anticipated changes for some sectors, particularly sweeteners, fats and oils, and citrus fruits. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 30 Number: 34071 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34071 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34071/files/ae990779.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34071 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wiebe, Keith D. Title: LINKING LAND QUALITY, AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY, AND FOOD SECURITY Abstract: Land quality and land degradation affect agricultural productivity, but quantifying these relationships has been difficult. Data are limited, and impacts are sensitive to the choices that farmers make. Summarizing new research by economists, soil scientists, and geographers, this report explores the extent to which land quality and land degradation affect agricultural productivity, how farmers' responses to land degradation are influenced by economic, environmental, and institutional factors, and whether land degradation poses a threat to productivity growth and food security. Results suggest that land degradation does not threaten food security at the global scale, but does pose problems in areas where soils are fragile, property rights are insecure, and farmers have limited access to information and markets. Keywords: Food Security and Poverty, Land Economics/Use, Productivity Analysis Length: 60 Number: 34073 Creation-Date: 2003 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34073 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34073/files/ae030823.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34073 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Duffield, James A. Author-Name: Wang, Michael Q. Title: The Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol: An Update Abstract: Studies conducted since the late 1970s have estimated the net energy value (NEV) of corn ethanol. However, variations in data and assumptions used among the studies have resulted in a wide range of estimates. This study identifies the factors causing this wide variation and develops a more consistent estimate. We conclude that the NEV of corn ethanol has been rising over time due to technological advances in ethanol conversion and increased efficiency in farm production. We show that corn ethanol is energy efficient as indicated by an energy output:input ratio of 1.34. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 19 Number: 34075 Creation-Date: 2002 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34075 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34075/files/ae020814.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34075 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gale, H. Frederick, Jr. Author-Name: McGranahan, David A. Author-Name: Teixeira, Ruy Author-Name: Greenberg, Elizabeth Title: Rural Competitiveness: Results of the 1996 Rural Manufacturing Survey Abstract: Establishments in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan locations are surprisingly similar in their adoption of new technologies, worker skill requirements, use of government programs and technical assistance, exports, and sources of financing, according to the results of a nationwide survey of 3,909 manufacturing businesses. The most widespread concern of both metro and nonmetro businesses appears to be with quality of labor. Survey respondents report rapidly increasing skill requirements, and many report problems finding qualified workers. Quality of local labor is the most frequently cited problem associated with nonmetro business locations. Access to credit, transportation, and telecommunications infrastructure is a problem of secondary importance for both metro and nonmetro respondents. Rural communities face a considerable challenge in supplying workers with needed skills. The fastest-growing skill requirements -- computer, interpersonal/teamwork, and problem-solving skills -- are not central to traditional academic instruction. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 30 Number: 34077 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34077 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34077/files/ae990776.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34077 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kantor, Linda Scott Title: A Dietary Assessment of the U.S. Food Supply: Comparing Per Capita Food Consumption with Food Guide Pyramid Serving Recommendations Abstract: Most American diets do not meet Federal Food Guide Pyramid dietary recommendations. On average, people consume too many servings of added fats and sugars and too few servings of fruits, vegetables, dairy products, lean meats, and foods made from whole grains compared with a reference set of Food Guide Pyramid serving recommendations appropriate to the age and gender composition of the U.S. population. In addition, while the healthfulness of diets has improved over time, the pace of improvement has been uneven. For example, while Americans consumed record amounts of fruits and vegetables in 1996, consumption of caloric sweeteners also reached a 27-year high. This report is the first dietary assessment to use ERSís time-series food supply data to compare average diets with Federal dietary recommendations depicted in the Food Guide Pyramid. Food Guide Pyramid servings were estimated for more than 250 agricultural commodities for 1970-96. New techniques were developed to adjust the data for food spoilage and other losses accumulated throughout the marketing system and the home. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 55 Number: 34079 Creation-Date: 1998 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34079 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34079/files/ae980772.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34079 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harwood, Joy L. Author-Name: Heifner, Richard G. Author-Name: Coble, Keith H. Author-Name: Perry, Janet E. Author-Name: Somwaru, Agapi Title: Managing Risk in Farming: Concepts, Research, and Analysis Abstract: The risks confronted by grain and cotton farmers are of particular interest, given the changing role of the Government after passage of the 1996 Farm Act. With the shift toward less government intervention in the post-1996 Farm Act environment, a more sophisticated understanding of risk and risk management is important to help producers make better decisions in risky situations and to assist policymakers in assessing the effectiveness of different types of risk protection tools. In response, this report provides a rigorous, yet accessible, description of risk and risk management tools and strategies at the farm level. It also provides never-before-published data on farmers' assessments of the risks they face, their use of alternative risk management strategies, and the changes they would make if faced with financial difficulty. It also compares price risk across crops and time periods, and provides detailed information on yield variability. Keywords: Farm Management, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 130 Number: 34081 Creation-Date: 1999 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34081 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34081/files/ae990774.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34081 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Golan, Elise H. Author-Name: Roberts, Tanya Author-Name: Salay, Elisabete Author-Name: Caswell, Julie A. Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Moore, Danna L. Title: FOOD SAFETY INNOVATION IN THE UNITED STATES: EVIDENCE FROM THE MEAT INDUSTRY Abstract: Recent industry innovations improving the safety of the Nation's meat supply range from new pathogen tests, high-tech equipment, and supply chain management systems, to new surveillance networks. Despite these and other improvements, the market incentives that motivate private firms to invest in innovation seem to be fairly weak. Results from an ERS survey of U.S. meat and poultry slaughter and processing plants and two case studies of innovation in the U.S. beef industry reveal that the industry has developed a number of mechanisms to overcome that weakness and to stimulate investment in food safety innovation. Industry experience suggests that government policy can increase food safety innovation by reducing informational asymmetries and strengthening the ability of innovating firms to appropriate the benefits of their investments. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 49 Number: 34083 Creation-Date: 2004 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.34083 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/34083/files/ae040831.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:34083 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 204 Number: 206137 Creation-Date: 1968-07 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206137/files/Agricultural%20Economic%20Report%20no.%20138.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206137 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Supplement for 1971 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 95 Number: 206139 Creation-Date: 1972-08 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206139/files/Food%20Consumption%20Prices%20Expenditures%20Supplement%201971%20no.%20138.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206139 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Supplement for 1973 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 98 Number: 206141 Creation-Date: 1974-12 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206141/files/Food%20Consumption%20Prices%20Expenditures%20Supplement%201973%20no.%20138.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206141 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Supplement for 1975 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 73 Number: 206142 Creation-Date: 1977-01 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206142/files/Food%20Consumption%20Prices%20Expenditures%20Supplement%201975%20no.%20138.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206142 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Marketing Review, 1994-95 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 149 Number: 206144 Creation-Date: 1996-09 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206144/files/Food%20Marketing%20Review_%201994-95.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206144 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Marketing Review, 1987 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 132 Number: 206145 Creation-Date: 1988-08 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206145/files/Food%20Marketing%20Review_%201987.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206145 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Unknown Title: Food Marketing Review, 1989-90 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 159 Number: 206146 Creation-Date: 1990-11 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/206146/files/Food%20Marketing%20Review_%201989-90.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:206146 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hiemstra, Stephen W. Author-Name: Koenig, Steven R. Author-Name: Freshwater, David Title: Prospects for a Secondary Market for Farm Mortgages Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Farm Management Length: 64 Number: 257199 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.257199 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/257199/files/usda%20ers%20603.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:257199 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sunding, Dave Author-Name: Andros, Robert Author-Name: McKenzie, Joseph Author-Name: Weatherly, Mark Author-Name: Eastburn, Gordon Author-Name: Thomas, Charles Author-Name: Radintz, James Author-Name: Subat, John Author-Name: Glauber, Joseph Author-Name: Olsen, Eric Title: Credit in Rural America Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 125 Number: 257200 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.257200 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/257200/files/usda%20ers%20749.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:257200 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1986 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, increased 3.2 percent in 1986, compared with a 2.3-percent rise in 1985. The larger rise partly reflected a 4.3-percent increase in meat, poultry, and fish prices whereas prices declined slightly in 1985. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, declined 1.3 percent. This decline and a much larger one in 1985 brought the 1986 farm value of foods to the lowest value since 1979. The farm-value share of a dollar spent at foodstores fell to 30 percent from 31 percent in 1985. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose by 3.7 percent, partly reflecting higher food industry labor costs from rising employment. Higher advertising, packaging, and other food marketing expenses also contributed to the rise in the farm-to-retail price spread. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis Length: 55 Number: 257274 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.257274 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/257274/files/usda%20ers%20574.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:257274 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1985 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, increased 2.3 percent in 1985, compared with a 3.8-percent rise in 1984. The smaller rise reflected large supplies of most commodities, particularly meats. The prices farmers received for commodities dropped sharply. The farm value of USDA's market basket of foods dropped 6.9 percent. This large decline brought the 1985 farm value of foods to nearly the same value as in 1980. In contrast, retail food prices rose 18 percent between 1980-85. The farm-value share of a dollar spent at foodstores fell to 31 percent from 34 percent in 1984. The farm-to­retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose by 5.3 percent, the largest increase since 1982. Food industry marketing costs increased very little, mostly because of a small rise in wages and salaries of workers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis Length: 55 Number: 257275 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.257275 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/257275/files/usda%20ers%20559.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:257275 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ackerman, Karen Z. Author-Name: Smith, Mark Author-Name: Suarez, Nydia R. Title: Agricultural Export Programs: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 40 Number: 262013 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262013 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262013/files/32467_aer716_002.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262013/files/32467_aer716_002.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262013 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Neff, Steve Author-Name: Plato, Gerald Title: Federal Marketing Orders and Federal Research and Promotion Programs: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for milk, fruits, vegetables, and specialty crops, including market conditions, policy proposals, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. Federal marketing orders and Federal research and promotion programs are self help programs proposed by agricultural commodity industries and authorized by Federal legislation. Marketing orders have proven a durable fixture in U.S. agricultural policy, especially for milk, fruits, vegetables, and specialty crops. Since 1980, however, 12 of the 47 Federal marketing orders for fruits, vegetables, and specialty crops have been terminated; 2 were added. New Federal research and promotion programs have begun; of the 18 operating in 1994, 14 were established since 1982. With budget limitations expected to constrain agricultural programs in the 1995 farm bill debate, these self-help programs are perhaps under less pressure than some others because they involve only administrative costs, much of which are reimbursed to the Government from assessments on producers, handlers, and importers. Issues with marketing orders include user fees to recover administrative costs, streamlining the rulemaking process, strengthening compliance and enforcement efforts, and resolving concerns of equitable treatment of all handlers within regulated commodity industries. Issues for research and promotion programs deal with governance of the programs and evaluation of their effectiveness. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Marketing Length: 42 Number: 262014 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262014 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262014/files/50840_aer707.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262014/files/50840_aer707.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262014 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ash, Mark Author-Name: Douvelis, George Author-Name: Castaneda, Jaime Author-Name: Morgan, Nancy Title: Oilseeds: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for oilseeds, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. International trade agreements and greater acreage flexibility have improved the outlook for U.S. oilseed production and trade. Issues for 1995 farm legislation that will affect oilseeds will include: setting marketing loans and loan rates; determining payment acres for program crops; extension of acreage-idling policies; resumption of the Export Enhancement Program for vegetable oils; continued funding for the Conservation Reserve Program and other land use policies; and revenue assurance. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 58 Number: 262015 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262015 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262015/files/50830_aer715.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262015/files/50830_aer715.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262015 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoffman, Linwood Author-Name: Chomo, Grace V. Author-Name: Schwartz, Sara Title: Wheat: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for wheat, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. Surplus wheat stocks disappeared under the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990. The aggregate U.S. wheat sector appears in balance due, in part, to acreage reduction programs, the Conservation Reserve Program, and the Export Enhancement Program. However, some industry participants wonder whether wheat carryover levels are optimal and whether the public will approve a continuation of government expenditures near current levels, while others want to maintain low carryover stocks. Exports will likely be the largest source of demand growth for U.S. wheat for the remainder of the 1990s. Global wheat trade is expected to expand steadily through the 1990s at a rate higher than the 1980s, but well below the rate experienced in the 1970s. The U.S. market share is expected to drop slightly over the next decade to about 31 percent as competition increases in a growing world market. Issues for the 1995 farm legislation include levels of program benefits and costs, methods for calculating deficiency payments, the future of the Conservation Reserve Program, farm program cost containment, planting flexibility, wheat imports, marketing loan provisions, targeting benefits to producers, environmental quality, and the future of the Export Enhancement Program. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 54 Number: 262016 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262016 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262016/files/50782_aer712.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262016/files/50782_aer712.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262016 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lord, Ron Title: Sugar: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for sugar, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. Current U.S. sugar price support programs have their origin in 1981 legislation. The price support program has resulted in significant expansion of the industry in the last decade. Beet sugar production has expanded in many regions, but has contracted in some western regions, particularly California. Cane sugar production has expanded in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, but has shrunk in Hawaii where costs are high. National average costs of producing beet and cane sugar have been declining in the last decade, and returns have exceeded costs. Average production costs of refined beet sugar are below those of refined cane sugar. Overall sugar demand has been growing at about 2 percent a year since 1986, when the rapid replacement of sugar by high-fructose corn syrup ended. Sugar imports under quota have fallen to levels close to the minimum provided by law. Prospects are for sugar production and consumption to continue to rise. No major impacts on the industry are expected from the GATT Uruguay Round or NAFTA. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 75 Number: 262017 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262017 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262017/files/50815_aer711.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262017/files/50815_aer711.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262017 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glade Jr., Edward H. Author-Name: Meyer, Leslie Author-Name: MacDonald, Stephen Title: Cotton: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for cotton, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. The Food Security Act of 1985, and subsequent cotton marketing loan modifications, are analyzed, as they formed the basic provisions of the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990. Cotton provisions of the 1990 Act attempted to ensure that cotton remained competitive in domestic and world markets. Program performance is discussed, including the effects on producers, consumers, and taxpayers. Important issues and policy options to be addressed during the 1995 farm bill debates are presented. Background information is also provided on the characteristics of the U.S. cotton industry including current trends in production, consumption, and foreign trade. Financial aspects of the cotton sector including prices, costs, and producer returns give additional perspective and understanding to the report. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 38 Number: 262018 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262018 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262018/files/50749_aer706.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262018/files/50749_aer706.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262018 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, William Author-Name: Riley, Peter Author-Name: Evans, Sam Title: Feed Grains: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: Policy issues likely to be considered in 1995 farm legislation are discussed, including planting flexibility, acreage idling under the acreage reduction program and conservation reserve program, and the malting barley assessment, as well as policy options to address these issues. Feed grains are the leading crop grown in the United States. U.S. feed grain production averaged 239 million tons per year in 1990-94. Total disappearance of feed grains is forecast to reach a record 267 million tons in the 1994/95 marketing year: 211 million tons for domestic use and 56 million tons for exports. Much of the expansion during the last two decades came from domestic use. Returns over cash expenses for corn producers during 1991-93 were only two thirds of those during 1988-90 due to rising cash expenses and declining government payments, but are expected to improve considerably in 1994/95 due to record yields. During 1990-93, world trade in coarse grains was sluggish and the U.S. share of world coarse grain trade was relatively low, averaging 52 percent. Slower growth of competitor exports and increased world import demand projected for the next decade, however, suggest that U.S. exports are likely to increase fairly steadily. During 1991-93, direct government payments as a percentage of annual gross income ranged from 12 to 17 percent for corn production. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade Length: 78 Number: 262020 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262020 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262020/files/50805_aer714.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262020/files/50805_aer714.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262020 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Blayney, Donald Author-Name: Miller, James Author-Name: Stillman, Richard Title: Dairy: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for dairy, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. The U.S. dairy industry is heavily influenced by public dairy policies and programs. The 1980s were marked by attempts to reduce government program costs by adjusting dairy price supports and initiating voluntary supply control measures. So far the same trends have continued into the 1990s. General issues of concern for the industry include: structural change in milk production, surplus production, international trade issues, and price policies. A key issue for legislators in 1995 will be price volatility in milk and dairy product markets. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 54 Number: 262021 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262021 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262021/files/50757_aer705.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262021/files/50757_aer705.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262021 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Schnepf, Randall D. Author-Name: Just, Bryan Title: Rice: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for rice, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. U.S. rice sector income has shown steady growth in recent years, reaching $2.1 billion in 1993/94. However, Government program payments have also grown in importance. Since 1985/86, rice program outlays have averaged $733 million per year, 42 percent of all returns from rice farming. Farm and industry economic health are linked to costs of production which vary significantly across the six rice-producing regions. Because of inflation in the cost of production since the early 1980s, frozen payment yields, reduced target prices, and continued reductions in farm program benefits due to budgetary pressures, some rice farmers have been operating at a loss. Any reductions in current rice program support levels would probably accelerate the trends of a declining number of U.S. rice farms, increasing farm size, and a shift of rice growing from the high-cost production regions along the gulf coast to the upper Delta States, while reducing both the participation rate and dependency on government program revenue. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 62 Number: 262022 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262022 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262022/files/50765_aer713.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262022/files/50765_aer713.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262022 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Title: Honey: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for honey, including market conditions, policy proposals, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. The U.S. Government has supported the price of honey since 1950 by providing market price stability to honey producers to encourage them to maintain honeybee populations sufficient to pollinate important agricultural crops. When honey support prices moved above the average domestic price in the early 1980s, domestic producers found it profitable to forfeit their honey to the Government while packers and industrial users imported lower priced honey for domestic use. Changes made in the program by the Food Security Act of 1985 reduced forfeitures of honey to the Government and made domestic honey competitive with imports. Consequently, imports declined from 138.2 million pounds in 1985 to 55.9 million in 1988. At the same time, Government takeover of forfeited honey declined from 98 million pounds in 1985 to 1.1-3.2 million pounds from 1989 through 1992. Expenditures and takeovers will decline even further in fiscal years 1994 and 1995 with amendments to the Appropriations Acts, which eliminated deficiency payments and loan forfeitures for 1994 and 1995 crop honey. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade Length: 38 Number: 262023 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262023 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262023/files/50791_aer708.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262023/files/50791_aer708.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262023 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Title: Tobacco: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: This report address considerations in the 1995 farm bill debate for tobacco, including market conditions, policy proposals, trade agreements, and the interactions between policy and markets for selected commodities. U.S. tobacco production is likely to decline by the end of the 1990s. Accelerated antismoking activity, along with an increasing number of smoking restrictions and prohibitions and proposals to increase cigarette taxes, is weakening leaf demand. Also, ample world production at lower prices is hurting U.S. export prospects. Technological advances that permit production of an acceptable-quality cigarette with cheaper leaf are curtailing demand for U.S.-grown leaf. Furthermore, stagnant cigarette demand and trade barriers hold down U.S. export prospects, although the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade should help soften declines in exports. This report provides an overview of the U.S. tobacco industry, reviews Federal tobacco programs, and examines issues and potential program changes. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade Length: 49 Number: 262024 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262024 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262024/files/50774_aer709.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262024/files/50774_aer709.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262024 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Caswell, Margriet F. Author-Name: Fuglie, Keith O. Author-Name: Klotz, Cassandra A. Title: Agricultural Biotechnology: An Economic Perspective Abstract: The development of agricultural biotechnology offers the opportunity to increase crop production, lower farming costs, improve food quality and safety, and enhance environmental quality. This report describes the economic, scientific, and social factors that will influence the future of biotechnology in agriculture. The supply of biotechnology innovations and products will be affected by public policies and by expectations of producer and consumer demand for the products. The demand for biotechnology by farmers and food processors is derived from the expected profitability of using the technology as an input to production. Ultimately, the use of biotechnology in the farm sector will depend on consumer demand for the biotechnology-derived agricultural product. Keywords: Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 59 Number: 262025 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262025 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262025/files/33088_aer687_002.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262025/files/33088_aer687_002.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262025 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Westcott, Paul C. Title: Market-Oriented Agriculture: The Declining Role of Government Commodity Programs in Agricultural Production Decisions Abstract: The portion of U.S. agricultural production covered by government income support payments has declined over the span of the last two 5-year farm acts. Consequently, nongovernmental supply and demand factors (market forces) are becoming more important in influencing farmers' production decisions. This report illustrates how agricultural supply has moved toward greater reliance on market forces (market orientation) by examining the declining role of government commodity programs in production decisions for corn, wheat, rice, and upland cotton. Payment coverage ratios, which measure the percentage of expected production covered by deficiency payments (income support payments made by the Federal Government to producers of certain agricultural commodities), have decreased. Thus, the role of government commodity programs in influencing farmers' production decisions at both the individual farm and national (aggregate) levels has declined. As a result, the share of US. cropland on which planting decisions are made based on market signals has increased, a trend toward market orientation that began with the 1985 farm act and continued with 1990 farm legislation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 8 Number: 262026 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262026 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262026/files/50339_aer671.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262026/files/50339_aer671.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262026 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: House, Robert Author-Name: Peters, Mark Author-Name: Baumes, Harry Author-Name: Disney, W. Terry Title: Ethanol and Agriculture: Effect of Increased Production on Crop and Livestock Sectors Abstract: Expanded ethanol production could increase U.S. farm income by as much as $1 billion (1.4 percent) by 2000. Because corn is the primary feedstock for ethanol, growers in the Corn Belt would benefit most from improved ethanol technology and heightened demand. Coproducts from the conversion process (corn gluten meal, corn gluten feed, and others) compete with soybean meal, so soybean growers in the South may see revenues decline. The U.S. balance of trade would improve with increased ethanol production as oil import needs decline. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 16 Number: 262028 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262028 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262028/files/50334_aer667.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262028/files/50334_aer667.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262028 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Author-Name: Osborn, C. Tim Title: The Conservation Reserve Program: An Economic Assessment Abstract: The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) will boost net farm income and improve environmental quality over the life of the program (1986-99). These gains will come at the cost of somewhat higher food prices and Government administrative expenses, and potential downturns in farm input industries and other local economic activity tied to farming where enrollment is heavy. The authors estimated the net economic benefits of the program to range between $3.4 billion and $11.0 billion in present value, based on the effects covered in this report. Any estimate of the net Government expense of the CRP is highly dependent upon projected commodity market conditions and assumed levels of the acreage reduction program in the absence of the CRP. Prior to the 1988 drought, the authors estimated a small net Government expense. A more recent estimate made after the 1988 drought and with higher assumed acreage reduction levels in the absence of the CRP resulted in a significantly higher net Government expense. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 40 Number: 262029 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262029 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262029/files/50873_aer626.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262029/files/50873_aer626.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262029 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fuglie, Keith Author-Name: Ballenger, Nicole Author-Name: Rubenstein, Kelly Day Author-Name: Klotz, Cassandra Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Reilly, John Author-Name: Vasavada, Utpal Author-Name: Yee, Jet Title: Agricultural Research and Development: Public and Private Investments Under Alternative Markets and Institutions Abstract: mpirical studies indicate high economic returns from the public's investment in agricultural research. Yet, even as society is placing broader demands on the research system, taxpayer support for public agricultural research is unlikely to increase. Stronger ownership rights for intellectual property have increased incentives for private investment in agricultural research, but key elements still require direct public support. The USDA is developing new mechanisms to build a more effective public-private partnership in agricultural research. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 81 Number: 262031 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262031 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262031/files/AER-735.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262031/files/AER-735.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262031 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoppe, Robert A. Title: Who Are Retired Farm Operators? Abstract: Approximately 352,000 farm operators, generally running very small farms, were identified as retired according to the 1993 Farm Costs and Returns Survey (FCRS). Although retired farmers operated 17 percent of all farms, they produced only 2 percent of the value of production. The information presented here has implications for the use of statistics on farming, the importance of farming to retired operators, the importance of the Conservation Reserve Program to retired operators, and the future of farming. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital Length: 33 Number: 262032 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262032 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262032/files/33020_aer730.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262032/files/33020_aer730.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262032 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Schimmelpfennig, David Author-Name: Lewandrowski, Jan Author-Name: Tsigas, Marinos Author-Name: Parry, Ian Title: Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change: Issues of Longrun Sustainability Abstract: Early evaluations of the effects of climate change on agriculture, which did not account for economic adjustments or consider the broader economic and environmental implications of such changes, overestimated the negative effects of climate change. This report, which highlights ERS research, focuses on economic adaptation and concludes there is considerably more sectoral flexibility and adaptability than found in other analyses. The report frames the discussion of economic adjustments within the context of global agricultural environmental sustainability. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 63 Number: 262033 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262033 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262033/files/AER-740.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262033/files/AER-740.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262033 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glade Jr., Edward H. Author-Name: Meyer, Leslie Author-Name: Stults, Harold Title: The Cotton Industry In The United States Abstract: The United States produces nearly 20 percent of the world's cotton and ranks second to China as the largest producing country. While over 80 countries produce cotton, the United States, China, India, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan (former Soviet republic) produce about 74 percent of the total world cotton supply. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade Length: 155 Number: 262034 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262034 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262034/files/aer-739.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262034/files/aer-739.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262034 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, William Title: Costs and Benefits of Cleaning U.S. Soybeans: Overview and Implications Abstract: Cleaning is not the solution to the soybean cleanliness issue. The costs of additional cleaning of all export soybeans to remove foreign material (FM) beyond the current level would, at minimum, exceed the domestic and international benefits by $20 million per year even if cleaning occurs at the least net-cost locations-river elevators and inland subterminals. Producers and handlers in the South would bear a disproportionate share of the net costs because of higher soybean FM level and larger export share of soybean production than the Corn Belt. Lowering soybean FM by altering production and harvesting practices offers an alternative to mechanical cleaning (a small percentage of producers can do so at little additional cash cost), but its cost-effectiveness needs to be evaluated more fully before adoption. Despite foreign buyers' preference for clean soybeans, foreign material is regarded as less critical than protein, oil, and moisture contents. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 35 Number: 262035 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262035 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262035/files/32969_aer736.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262035/files/32969_aer736.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262035 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Huang, Sophia Title: APEC Agriculture and Trade: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Region Buying More U.S. Consumer-Ready Food Products Abstract: In fiscal 1995, more than 60 percent of U.S. farm exports, worth a record $33 billion, went to Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum members. Bulk exports showed the most dramatic growth, benefiting greatly from China's conversion from a net grain exporter into a major net importer. Chinese imports are projected to increase further over the long term. Continued trade liberalization throughout APEC, rapid economic growth in its developing economies, and limited arable land in China and East Asia will ensure continued growth in U.S. farm exports to APEC markets-especially meat for East Asia and grains for China and Southeast Asia. Keywords: International Relations/Trade Length: 66 Number: 262036 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262036 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262036/files/33017_aer734.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262036/files/33017_aer734.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262036 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, William Title: Economic Implications of Cleaning Soybeans in the United States Abstract: Overall, the costs of delivering cleaner soybeans on a universal basis exceed domestic benefits. The cost of cleaning export soybeans beyond current levels at the least net-cost locations (both river elevators and inland subterminals), at minimum, exceeds domestic benefits by $26 million per year. However, a small percentage of producers could lower soybean foreign material (FM) with no or little additional cost by changing harvesting and handling practices. Most FM originates from the farm. Although soybean cleaning is not common, producers can alter production and harvesting practices to reduce FM, which mainly consists of plant parts, broken beans, weed seed, and dirt. One strategy to address the soybean cleanliness issue is to create incentives for producers to alter production and harvesting practices, such as better weed control and combine adjustment. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade Length: 50 Number: 262037 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262037 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262037/files/32972_aer737.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262037/files/32972_aer737.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262037 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ash, Mark Title: Economic Implications of Cleaning Barley in the United States Abstract: The costs of cleaning barley beyond the current level of cleanliness would outweigh the potential benefits. There is little commercial interest in the cleaning of barley moving into domestic malting and feed barley markets. The export market demand is primarily for feed barley. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries Length: 35 Number: 262038 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262038 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262038/files/aer-745.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262038/files/aer-745.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262038 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wiebe, Keith Author-Name: Tegene, Abebayehu Author-Name: Kuhn, Betsey Title: Partial Interests in Land: Policy Tools for Resource Use and Conservation Abstract: Property rights arise out of law, custom, and the operation of private markets, with important implications for how land and other natural resources are used and conserved. Over the past several years, debate about the nature and scope of property rights has combined with budget concerns and reauthorization of the Farm Bill, the Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act to focus public attention on Federal natural resource policy. This report examines the nature of land ownership and the evolving Federal role in land use and conservation, with particular attention to the voluntary acquisition and conveyance of conservation easements and other partial interests in land. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 63 Number: 262040 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262040 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262040/files/AES-744.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262040/files/AES-744.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262040 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Farm Business Economics Branch Author-Name: Rural Economy Division Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Farmers' Use of Marketing and Production Contracts Abstract: Contracts are an integral part of the production and marketing of selected livestock commodities, such as broilers, turkeys, eggs, and milk. Such crops as fruit, vegetables, and sugar beets and cane are mostly produced under contracts. In the past, farm receipts were assumed to be distributed across all farm families in proportion to their production. Today, contractors receive a large share of farm receipts, formerly assumed to go to the operator's family. Contractors typically bear a large share of production and price risk, and earn the majority of net income from the commodity's production. Farmers may benefit by being able to expand their operations more rapidly than otherwise possible--perhaps with less debt and fewer financial risks. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 25 Number: 262041 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262041 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262041/files/AER-747.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262041/files/AER-747.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262041 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, Biing-Hwan Author-Name: Guthrie, Joanne Author-Name: Blaylock, James R. Title: The Diets of America's Children: Influences of Dining Out, Household Characteristics, and Nutrition Knowledge Abstract: Recent USDA surveys point out several shortcomings in children's diets. The share of calories from total and saturated fat averaged 4 and 3 percentage points above the recommendations. The sodium intake averaged 23 percent above the 2,400 milligrams recommended by some authorities. These dietary problems start early in childhood and continue into adulthood. Additionally, only a small fraction of female adolescents met the recommended intakes for calcium, fiber, and iron. Compared with home foods, away-from-home foods were higher in total and saturated fat and lower in cholesterol, fiber, calcium, iron, and sodium. With increasing popularity in dining out, efforts to improve children's diets may need strengthening. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 42 Number: 262042 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262042 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262042/files/AER-746.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262042/files/AER-746.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262042 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Runyan, Jack L. Title: Profile of Hired Farmworkers, 1994 Annual Averages Abstract: Hired farmworkers continue to earn less than all wage and salary workers, but the wage gap has narrowed. The median weekly earnings for hired farmworkers in 1994 were $238, an increase of 19 percent (5 percent when adjusted for inflation) from 1990; median weekly earnings for all wage and salary workers increased by 11 percent (a 2-percent decrease in real terms). Keywords: Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital Length: 25 Number: 262043 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262043 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262043/files/aer-748.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262043/files/aer-748.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262043 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Henderson, Dennis R. Author-Name: Handy, Charles Author-Name: Neff, Steven A. Title: Globalization of the Processed Foods Market Abstract: International commerce in processed foods substantially exceeds the value of unprocessed agricultural commodities and is expanding more rapidly. International trade in processed foods has been the most rapidly growing portion of world food and agricultural trade during the past decade. Even more significant, however, are sales from foreign affiliates of food manufacturing, grocery wholesaling and retailing, and food service firms. Foreign affiliation is acquired through foreign direct investment in foreign plants and facilities. U.S. food manufacturers' sales through foreign affiliates were more than quadruple the value of processed food exports from the United States. Foreign food manufacturers' sales through U.S. affiliates were more than double the value of processed food exports to the United States. Patterns of global commerce in processed foods are influenced by public policies addressing transportation, communication, rules for regional and multinational trade, food product and process standards, the environment, and intellectual property. Keywords: Industrial Organization, International Relations/Trade Length: 233 Number: 262044 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262044 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262044/files/AER-742.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262044/files/AER-742.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262044 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Landes, Maurice Author-Name: Westcott, Paul Author-Name: Wainio, John Title: International Agricultural Baseline Projections to 2005 Abstract: This report provides baseline projections for international supply, demand, and trade for major agricultural commodities to 2005. It is a companion report to Agricultural Baseline Projections to 2005, Reflecting the 1996 Farm Act (WAOB-97-1), providing the foreign country detail supporting those projections. Projections of strong global economic growth, particularly in developing countries, combined with more open foreign markets and the emergence of China as a major bulk commodity importer, support strong projected gains in U.S. farm exports. The value of total U.S. agricultural exports is projected to rise from a record $59.8 billion in FY 1996 to nearly $80 billion in 2005. The projections are a conditional scenario, assuming the continuation of 1996 U.S. farm legislation through 2005, no shocks, average weather, and specific macroeconomic and foreign country policy assumptions. The projections were completed based on information available as of January 1997, and reflect a composite of model results and analyst judgment. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 202 Number: 262045 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262045 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262045/files/AER-750.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262045/files/AER-750.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262045 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Perry, Janet Title: Financial Performance of U.S. Commercial Farms, 1991-94 Abstract: Commercial farms represent only 27 percent of farms in the United States, yet produce just over 75 percent of the value of agricultural products. These commercial farm businesses vary greatly by size, commodities produced, financial status, and operator demographics. Overall financial performance shows that the proportion of farms experiencing extreme financial stress remained stable over the last few years, and is considerably less than in the 1980s. Even as record levels of gross farm income are earned in this sector, expenses have increased as well, leaving farms in 1994 with average net farm income relatively stable in nominal terms over the previous 4 years. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural Finance Length: 140 Number: 262046 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262046 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262046/files/32796_aer751.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262046/files/32796_aer751.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262046 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McBride, William D. Title: Change in U.S. Livestock Production, 1969-92 Abstract: This report examines geographic changes in U.S. livestock production during 1969-92 from the standpoint of industry concentration and structure. Farm numbers declined 30 percent from 1969 to 1992, but hog and dairy operations were down 70 percent, farms producing eggs dropped 85 percent, and broiler operations declined 35 percent. Operations feeding cattle declined 40 percent from 1978 to 1992. Despite fewer farms, production was generally stable for most commodities with changes that reflected shifts in consumer demand for livestock products. With fewer farms producing more product, structural change in the production of most major livestock commodities was substantial. However, the magnitude and geography of change varied by commodity. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 45 Number: 262047 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262047 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262047/files/AER-754.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262047/files/AER-754.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262047 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Martinez, Steve Author-Name: Zering, Kelly Title: Vertical Coordination and Consumer Welfare: The Case of the Pork Industry Abstract: Net benefits to consumers are not a certainty, but the "industrialization" of the U.S. pork industry could lead to lower prices and larger supplies of higher quality pork products because of lower onfarm production costs, more efficient processing, and greater control over hog quality characteristics. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 35 Number: 262048 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262048 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262048/files/aer-753.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262048/files/aer-753.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262048 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, James Author-Name: Ericksen, Milton H. Title: Commodity Program Provisions Under the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977 Abstract: Commodity program provisions of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977 are summarized. Price support, loan level, disaster payment, program acreage, and other provisions of the legislation are discussed for wheat and feed grains, cotton, rice, peanuts, soybeans, sugar, dairy products, and wool and mohair. Miscellaneous provisions and those applying to grain reserves and to the beekeeper indemnity program are also summarized. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 38 Number: 262049 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.262049 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262049/files/51326_aer389.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/262049/files/51326_aer389.pdf?subformat=pdfa File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:262049 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Haley. Mildred Title: Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Monthly Outlook, May 2020 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Number: 303712 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.303712 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/303712/files/USDA%20Livestock%2C%20Dairy%2C%20and%20Poultry%20Monthly%20Outlook%2C%20May%202020.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:303712 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kenner, Bart Title: U.S. fruit imports grew by $8.9 billion over the last decade to meet rising demand Keywords: Marketing Number: 305199 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305199 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305199/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20U.S.%20fruit%20imports%20grew%20by%20%248.9%20billion%20over%20the%20last%20decade%20to%20meet%20rising%20demand.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305199 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zeballos, Eliana Title: How You Pay Influences the Share of Healthy Food You Buy Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Number: 305200 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305200 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305200/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20How%20You%20Pay%20Influences%20the%20Share%20of%20Healthy%20Food%20You%20Buy.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305200 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dong, Xiao Author-Name: Handbury, Jessie Title: Differences in the Local Food Environment Are Not the Main Cause of Nutritional Inequality Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Health Economics and Policy Number: 305201 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305201 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305201/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20Differences%20in%20the%20Local%20Food%20Environment%20Are%20Not%20the%20Main%20Cause%20of%20Nutritional%20Inequality.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305201 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Title: Organic Dairy Farms Realized Both Higher Costs and Higher Gross and Net Returns Than Conventional Dairy Farms Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Number: 305202 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305202 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305202/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20Organic%20Dairy%20Farms%20Realized%20Both%20Higher%20Costs%20and%20Higher%20Gross%20and%20Net%20Returns%20Than%20Conventional%20Dairy%20Farms.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305202 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1983 Abstract: Retail grocery food prices increased 2.1 percent in 1983, half the 1982 rate and the least in 16 years. The slowdown reflected abundant supplies of farm products, weak demand, and a smaller rise in processing and marketing costs. The farm value of USDA's market basket of foods declined 2.2 percent in 1983. Farm values for red meat products fell while farm values of poultry, eggs, and oilseed products rose. The farm-value share of a dollar spent at foodstores declined to 33 percent from 34 percent. The farm to retail price spread of USDA’s market basket of foods rose by 2.5 percent, the least in 11 years. Food industry marketing costs increased at half their 1982 rate, largely because of a slower rise in wages. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis Length: 55 Number: 305298 Creation-Date: 1984-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305298 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305298/files/aer514.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305298 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wooten, Hugh H. Author-Name: Gertel, Karl Author-Name: Pendleton, William C. Title: Major Uses of Land and Water In The United States, With Special Reference to Agriculture: Summary for 1959 Abstract: Excerpt from report summary: Planted acreage in 1961 was the smallest since 1930, a peak year for total cropland acreage. Total acreage planted in 1961, including fruits, nuts, and vegetables, was 324 million acres, a reduction of one-eighth from 1930. The biggest reduction since 1930 in acreage has been in grains and cotton. The net difference in total cropland acreage in 1930 and 1961 for the country as a whole does not fully reflect shifts within States and counties. Farming methods together with improved land and water-use have increased production per acre, so that a much smaller cropland acreage can meet the 1962 demand for farm products. The shift in farm power since 1930 from horses and mules to tractors and trucks alone has released about 60 million acres of cropland, formerly used for feed, to other purposes. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 58 Number: 305299 Creation-Date: 1962-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305299 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305299/files/aer13.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305299 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Schaub, James Author-Name: McArthur, W..C. Author-Name: Hacklander, Duane Author-Name: Glauber, Joseph Author-Name: Leath, Mack Author-Name: Doty, Harry Title: The U.S. Soybean Industry Abstract: U.S. soybean production has increased sevenfold since 1950, making soybeans the second highest valued crop after corn. Soybean production has risen in response to increasing world demand for soybeans and the derivative products, oil and meal. The U.S. share of the world export market has ranged from 65-80 percent during the 1980's. Soybean oil accounts for 75 percent of the fats and oils used in edible oil products. Soybean meal is the major high protein feed fed to livestock in the United States. This report describes the U.S. soybean industry from producers to consumers and provides a single source of economic and statistical information on soybeans. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 56 Number: 305423 Creation-Date: 1988-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305423 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305423/files/aer588.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305423 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Title: U.S. Hog Industry Abstract: There were 78 percent fewer hog farmers in 1978 than in 1950 but they produced about as much pork, and were located in the same regions of the country. The hog industry has moved rapidly to fewer and larger operations that draw on more capital-intensive technologies, like special housing with automated cleaning and feeding equipment. Differences are found in the characteristics and technical input/output ratios of smaller vs. larger operations, with apparent advantages for large operations in many important areas. These findings are based on a 1981 survey of hog producers. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 116 Number: 305428 Creation-Date: 1984-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305428 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305428/files/aer511.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305428 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starbird, Irving R. Author-Name: Glade, Edward H. Author-Name: McArthur, W. C. Author-Name: Cooke, Fred T. Author-Name: Townsend, Terry Title: The U.S. Cotton Industry Abstract: U.S. farmers produced about 17 percent of the world’s cotton in 1985, down from about 31 percent in 1960. During the same time, cotton's share of the world textile fiber market dropped from nearly 70 percent to about 50 percent. The United States, China, and the Soviet Union produce about 60 percent of the world's cotton. Although total harvested acreage in the United States dropped by about 33 percent between 1960 and 1985, production dropped by less than 6 percent because of increased yields. Cotton and other natural fibers have faced stiff competition from manmade fibers during the last 25 years. However, demand for cotton and cotton blends, especially, has recently increased. U.S. cotton producers have frequently been plagued by excess production capacity, high stocks, and low product prices. Growth in the U.S. cotton industry will continue to depend heavily on exports, as domestic mill consumption may be constrained by textile imports and competition from manmade fibers. This report describes all components of the U.S. cotton industry, from producers to consumers, and provides a single source of economic and statistical information on cotton. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade Length: 179 Number: 305432 Creation-Date: 1987-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305432 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305432/files/aer567.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305432 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lasley, Floyd A. Author-Name: Jones, Harold B. Author-Name: Easterling, Edward H. Author-Name: Christensen, Lee A. Title: The U.S. Broiler Industry Abstract: Americans are eating more broilers than ever because of low real prices, new products, and preference for lean meat. Per capita broiler consumption hit a record high of 60.3 pounds in 1987, compared with 41 pounds in 1977. Production, now over 19 billion pounds liveweight, increased in all but 5 of the last 50 years. The industry has become more concentrated: the 8 largest of the more than 100 firms process over one-half the volume. Further processed products, sold mostly to fast food outlets, represent the fastest growing sector of the industry. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 67 Number: 305460 Creation-Date: 1988-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305460 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305460/files/aer591.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305460 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Leath, Mack N. Author-Name: Meyer, Lynn H. Author-Name: Hill, Lowell D. Title: U.S. Corn Industry Abstract: U.S. corn production nearly tripled between 1950 and 1979 in response to increased world demand. Corn is the largest grain crop in the United States, and U.S. corn accounts for 80 percent of global corn trade. U.S. farmers grew a record 7.9 billion bushels in 1979, spurred mostly by stepped-up average yields of nearly 110 bushels per acre. Growers will likely continue production at full capacity, prompted by increasing fuel alcohol and sweetener needs and an expanding world demand for grain. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 124 Number: 305461 Creation-Date: 1982-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305461 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305461/files/aer479.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305461 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoffman, Linwood A. Author-Name: Livezey, Janet Title: The U.S. Oats Industry Abstract: U.S. farmers produced about 16 percent of the total world oats production during 1980-85, down from more than 29 percent during 1960-64 when the United States was the largest producer. During that same time, world oats production dropped from about 49.5 million metric tons to about 45.3 million metric tons. The United States, Soviet Union, and Canada produced more than 58 percent of total world oats production during 1980-85. U.S. oats production is now second to that of the Soviet Union. The value of U.S. oats grain production dropped from 3d among all grains in 1950 to 16th in 1985. The yield per acre has tended to increase by 0.7 bushel per year, but the number of acres harvested for grain has trended downward by 955,000 acres per year. This report describes the U.S. oats industry from producers to consumers and provides a single source of economic and statistical information on oats. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 114 Number: 305462 Creation-Date: 1987-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305462 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305462/files/aer573.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305462 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harwood, Joy L. Author-Name: Leath, Mack N. Author-Name: Heid, Walter G. Title: U.S. Milling and Baking Industries Abstract: U.S. per capita flour consumption reached 128 pounds in 1987, the highest mark since the early 1950's and 4 pounds over the 1986 level. This strong demand has been accompanied in the mining and baking industries by larger output per plant, improved production and distribution efficiency, and rising concentration (a relatively large share of capacity held by relatively fewer firms). Concentration among the top four wheat flour and durum milling firms alone increased from 34 percent in 1973 to 52 percent in 1987. This report, which describes the industries' structure, conduct, and performance, examines such current trends. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 82 Number: 305463 Creation-Date: 1989-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305463 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305463/files/aer611.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305463 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G. Author-Name: Leath, Mack N. Title: U.S. Barley Industry Abstract: Economic, physical, and institutional forces have brought changes in barley supply, demand, and prices. The importance of barley as a feed grain is declining in the United States while increasing elsewhere. If current trends continue, barley will be produced in the United States primarily for malting purposes within the next decade. As this change occurs, barley production will require new policy considerations. This report examines underlying economic forces and associated changes in the barley industry; quantifies barley and barley products flow from the producer to the consumer; describes industry organization and practices; and shows trends in world trade. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 70 Number: 305464 Creation-Date: 1978-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305464 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305464/files/aer395.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305464 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gilliam, Henry C. Title: The U.S. Beef Cow-Calf Industry Abstract: The number of beef cows in each of the four major U.S. cow-calf production regions declined by about one-fifth between 1975 and 1980 in response to sharp reductions in feeder cattle prices and increases in production costs during the midseventies. Several physical measures of performance indicate that most resources were used more efficiently in beef cow-calf production in 1980 than in 1975. This report identifies the structural characteristics and operating practices for beef cow-calf production operations in the United States. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 70 Number: 305465 Creation-Date: 1984-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305465 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305465/files/aer515.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305465 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McArthur, W.C. Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Author-Name: Doty, Harry O. Author-Name: Hacklander, Duane Title: U.S. Peanut Industry Abstract: The United States, with 25 percent of world peanut exports and 10 percent of world peanut production, is the leading peanut exporter and the third largest producer; only India and China produce more. U.S. production has nearly doubled since the early fifties, chiefly because of increases in yields. Most peanut consumption in the United States is for food, especially peanut butter, whereas most foreign countries use peanuts for oil. Canada is the leading importer of U.S. peanuts. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade Length: 52 Number: 305472 Creation-Date: 1982-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305472 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305472/files/aer493.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305472 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Setia, Parveen Author-Name: Childs, Nathan Author-Name: Wailes, Eric Author-Name: Livezey, Janet Title: The U.S. Rice Industry Abstract: The U.S. rice industry, which includes farmers, handlers, dryers, millers, processors, and traders, is more vertically integrated than other grain markets. The industry has over 300 years of history in the United States and has shown itself adaptable to changes in technology, regional advantage, export markets, environmental concerns, and consumer taste. Although producing only 1 to 2 percent of the world crop, the United States accounts for 16 to 17 percent of world rice trade. About half the U.S. crop is exported each year to diverse markets in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and Canada. Rice production accounts for less than 1 percent of field crop value in the United States. It is more capital-intensive than other grain crops and rice farms are larger than other grain farms. Production is concentrated in six States. Important factors affecting the future of the U.S. rice industry include: the opening of world markets, environmental legislation, new uses for byproducts, and greater income growth in developing countries. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 169 Number: 305473 Creation-Date: 1994-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305473 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305473/files/aer700.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305473 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jackson, David M. Author-Name: Grant, Warren R. Author-Name: Shafer, Carl E. Title: The U.S. Sorghum Industry Abstract: Sorghum has become a major feed grain crop in recent years, complementing the development of the feedlot industry in the Southwest where most U.S. sorghum is produced. About 72 percent of the crop is fed domestically; exports account for 26 percent. Seed, food, and industrial use totaled less than 1 percent of total demand in the past 10 years. The entire U.S, sorghum subsector, from producer to end-user, is described as are the factors affecting supply and demand: production costs, supply trends, production geography, stock levels, Government policy, market structure, prices, and world production and trade. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 89 Number: 305474 Creation-Date: 1980-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305474 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305474/files/aer457.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305474 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McCormick, Ian. Author-Name: Davison, Cecil W. Author-Name: Hoskin, Roger L. Title: The U.S. Sunflower Industry Abstract: U.S. sunflowerseed production increased tenfold during the 1970's and approached 6 million acres, but declined to less than 2 million acres by the late 1980's, ranking 17th in value among U.S. field crops. Output rose in response to growing demand for sunflowerseed oil and declined because of increased competition abroad and increasingly attractive returns from competing crops and land uses at home. Recent changes in domestic agricultural policies, combined with increased marketing opportunities both at home and abroad, have led to renewed interest in sunflowers among producers, processors, and input industries. Also, the relatively low level of saturated fat in sunflowerseed oil and its other technical characteristics have increased the oil's popularity among consumers. This report describes the U.S. sunflower industry from producers to consumers and provides a single source of economic and statistical information on sunflowers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 66 Number: 305475 Creation-Date: 1992-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305475 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305475/files/aer663.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305475 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Author-Name: Griffin, Karen F. Title: The U.S. Tobacco Industry Abstract: With 18 percent of world tobacco exports and 12 percent of production, the United States is the leading tobacco exporter and the second largest producer behind China. While tobacco is America's sixth largest cash crop, U.S. tobacco production has declined because of lower tobacco use per cigarette, more imported tobacco in U.S. cigarettes, smaller exports, and reduced U.S. cigarette production. Most tobacco is used in cigarettes, but other products include snuff, cigars, and chewing and smoking tobacco. Japan and West Germany are the major importers of U.S. tobacco, and Turkey and Brazil are the major exporters of tobacco to the United States. This report examines the U.S. tobacco industry—tobacco use, production, and trade—and how Government programs affect tobacco farmers. The cultural practices, harvesting and curing systems, market preparation, and production costs for tobacco are also reviewed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 74 Number: 305476 Creation-Date: 1988-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305476 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305476/files/aer589.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305476 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cowhig, James D. Title: Education, Skill Level, and Earnings of the Hired Farm Working Force of 1961 Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 26 Number: 305490 Creation-Date: 1963-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305490 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305490/files/aer26.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305490 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Baum, Samuel Author-Name: Friend, Reed E. Author-Name: Stansberry, Robert R., Jr. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1961 Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 67 Number: 305491 Creation-Date: 1963-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305491 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305491/files/aer36.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305491 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bowles, Gladys K. Author-Name: Sellers, Walter E., Jr. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1963 with Supplementary Data for 1962 Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 67 Number: 305492 Creation-Date: 1965-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305492 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305492/files/aer76.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305492 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bowles, Gladys K. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1964 -- A Statistical Report Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 305493 Creation-Date: 1965-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305493 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305493/files/aer82.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305493 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bowles, Gladys K. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1965 – A Statistical Report Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 34 Number: 305494 Creation-Date: 1966-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305494 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305494/files/aer98.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305494 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rapton, Avra Title: Seasonal Work Patterns of the Hired Farm Working Force of 1964 Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 37 Number: 305495 Creation-Date: 1966-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305495 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305495/files/aer102.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305495 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1967 – A Statistical Report Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 33 Number: 305513 Creation-Date: 1968-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305513 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305513/files/aer148.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305513 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1966 – A Statistical Report Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 305514 Creation-Date: 1967-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305514 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305514/files/aer120.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305514 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1968 – A Statistical Report Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 305515 Creation-Date: 1969-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305515 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305515/files/aer164.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305515 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1969 – A Statistical Report Abstract: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1969 (HFWF) consisted of about 2.6 million persons 14 years of age and over who did some farmwork for cash wages during the year. This drop of 12 percent from the 2.9 million in1968 reflects further utilization of farm labor-saving technology. Members of the 1969 HFWF were mostly young (median age 23), white (77 percent), male (74 percent), persons living in nonfarm places (74 percent). They earned an average of $837 in cash wages, or $10.75 a day for 78 days of farm wagework. Only 21 percent were engaged chiefly in farm wagework. Of these, 301,000 were year-round workers, who were the most fully employed and highest paid, averaging 319 days of farm wagework and earning $3,485. About 60 percent (primarily housewives and students) were not in the labor force most of the year. About 257,000 were domestic migratory workers. This group declined at about the same rate as all hired farmworkers, thus continuing to comprise about 10 percent of the total. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 305516 Creation-Date: 1970-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305516 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305516/files/aer180.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305516 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1970 – A Statistical Report Abstract: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1970 (HFWF) consisted of about 2.5 million persons 14 years of age and over who did some farmwork for cash wages during the year. This decline of 4 percent from the 2.6 million in 1969 reflects further utilization of farm laborsaving technology. Members of the 1970 HFWF were mostly young (median age 23), white (78 percent), male (76 percent), persons living in nonfarm places (73 percent). They earned an average of $887 in cash wages, or $11.10 a day for 80 days of farm wagework. Only 22 percent were engaged chiefly in farm wagework. Of these, 306,000 were year-round workers, who were the most fully employed and highest paid, averaging 318 days of farm wagework and earning $3,467. About 56 percent (primarily housewives and students) were not in the labor force most of the year. About 196,000, or 8 percent of the total, were domestic migratory workers. This was a-drop of 24 percent from 257,000 in 1969, while the remainder of the hired farmworkers declined by only 1 percent. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 305517 Creation-Date: 1971-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305517 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305517/files/aer201.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305517 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1971 – A Statistical Report Abstract: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1971 (HFWF) consisted of about 2.6 million persons 14 years of age and over who did some farmwork for cash wages during the year. This slight increase, 4 percent, from the 2.5 million in 1970 reversed the declining trend in process since 1967. Members of the 1971 HFWF were mostly young (median age 22), white (78 percent), male (76 percent), persons living in nonfarm places (73 percent). They earned an average of $882 in cash wages, or $11.60 a day for 76 days of farm wagework. Only 19 percent were engaged chiefly in farm wagework. Of these, 285,000 were year-round workers, who were the most fully employed and highest paid, averaging 317 days of farm wagework and earning $3,799. About 58 percent (primarily housewives and students) were not in the labor force most of the year. About 172,000, or 7 percent of the total, were domestic migratory workers. This was a drop of 12 percent from 196,000 in 1970 and a continuation of the 4-year declining trend in migrant numbers, while the remainder of the hired farmworkers reversed the downward trend and increased by 4 percent. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 33 Number: 305518 Creation-Date: 1972-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305518 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305518/files/aer222.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305518 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1972 – A Statistical Report Abstract: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1972 (HFWF) consisted of about 2.8 million persons 14 years of age and over who did some farmwork for cash wages during the year. This was a 7 percent increase from the 2.6 million in 1971 and continues the increase which began in 1971 after a continuous decline in the number since 1967. Members of the 1972 HFWF were mostly young (median age 23), white (85 percent), male (77 percent), persons living in nonfarm places (72 percent). They earned an average of $1,160 in cash wages, or $13.20 a day for 88 days of farm wagework. Only 24 percent were engaged chiefly in farm wagework. Of these, 367,000 were year-round workers, who were the most fully employed and highest paid, averaging 306 days of farm wagework and earning $4,358. About 52 percent (primarily housewives and students) were not in the labor force most of the year. About 184,000, or 7 percent of the total, were domestic migratory workers. This was an increase of 7 percent from 172,000 in 1971 and reversed the declining trend in the number of migrants which began in 1965. The remainder of the hired farmworkers, the nonmigratory increased by 9 percent over 1971. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 33 Number: 305519 Creation-Date: 1973-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305519 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305519/files/aer239.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305519 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1973 – A Statistical Report Abstract: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1973 (HFWF) consisted of about 2.7 million persons 14 years of age and over who did some farmwork for cash wages during the year. This was a slight decrease, about 5 percent, from the 2.8 million in 1972 following a 2 year increase. Members of the 1973 HFWF were mostly young (median age 24), white (86 percent), male (79 percent), persons living in nonfarm places (75 percent). They earned an average of $1,412 in cash wages, or $14.85 a day for 95 days of farm wagework. Only 27 percent were engaged chiefly in farm wagework. Of these, 421,000 were year-round workers, who were the most fully employed and highest paid, averaging 310 days of farm wagework and earning $4,696. About 50 percent (primarily housewives and students) were not in the labor force most of the year. About 203,000, or 8 percent of the total, were domestic migratory workers. This was an increase of 10 percent from 184,000 in 1972 and continued the increase which began in 1971 after a continuous decline in numbers since 1965. The remainder of the hired farmworkers, the nonmigratory, decreased by 6 percent over 1972. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 33 Number: 305520 Creation-Date: 1974-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305520 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305520/files/aer265.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305520 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rowe, Gene A. Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1974 – A Statistical Report Abstract: In 1974, there were approximately 2.7 million persons 14 years of age and over who did farm wagework at some time during the year. The hired farm working force has changed little over the last 3 years. Thus, the annual employment of farmworkers appears to have become stable after the long-term downward trend of prior years. Generally, hired farm wageworkers were young'(median age 23 years), white (83 percent), male (79 percent), and resided in nonfarm places (76 percent). They earned an average of $1,447 in annual cash wages, or $16.60 per day for 87 days of farm wagework. Approximately 1.6 million workers were employed solely in farm work during the year; the remaining 1.1 million performed both farm and nonfarm work. About 209,000 (8 percent) of the total were migratory farmworkers in 1974, the third consecutive year of increase. Annual earnings for these workers averaged $1,688, or $21.60 per day for 78 days of farmwork. Forty-nine percent of all migrants were only employed in farmwork during the year. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 31 Number: 305521 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305521 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305521/files/aer297.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305521 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rowe, Gene Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1975 Abstract: About 2.6 million persons 14 years of age and over did farmwork for wages or salary at some time during 1975. This total has changed little during the past 5 years, after the long-term downward trend of prior years. Generally, hired farmworkers were young (median age 23 years), male (77 percent), and resided in nonfarm places (79 percent). Their annual earnings in 1975 averaged $2,552. Of this, $1,488 was earned for 85 days of hired farmwork. The remainder came from nonfarm employment. About 72 percent were white, 11 percent were of Spanish origin, and 17 percent were blacks and others. Approximately 1.5 million persons worked only as farmworkers during 1975; the remaining 1.1 million did both farm and nonfarm work. Over 1 million persons doing hired farmwork were in school much of the year. About 188,000 (7 percent) of the total were migrant farmworkers in 1975. Annual earnings from farm employment for these workers averaged $2,003, or $21.05 per day for 95 days of farmwork. Sixty-one percent of all migrants had only farm jobs during the year. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 305522 Creation-Date: 1976-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305522 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305522/files/aer355.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305522 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Author-Name: Rowe, Gene Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1976 Abstract: The 1976 Hired Farm Working Force Survey, conducted by the Bureau of the Census in December 1976, and reported and analyzed in this report, indicates that 2.8 million persons 14 years of age and over did hired farmwork sometime during the year. The workers were predominately young (60 percent under 25 years) and male (75 percent). The majority (75 percent) were White, 11 percent were Hispanic, and 14 percent were Blacks and Others. The median education of workers 25 years and older was 10.1 years. Annual earnings in 1976 of all hired farmworkers averaged $2,860; $1,651 was earned for an average 86 days of hired farmwork; the remainder came from nonfarm employment. Approximately 213,000 persons (8 percent of the work force) were migrants in 1976. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 52 Number: 305523 Creation-Date: 1978-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305523 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305523/files/aer405.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305523 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rowe, Gene Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1977 Abstract: About 2.7 million persons 14 years of age and over worked on farms for wages and salaries at some time during 1977. The workers were predominately young (56 percent under 25 years) and male (77 percent). The majority (72 percent) were Whites, 11 percent were Hispanics, and 17 percent were Blacks and Others. The median education of the workers 25 years and older was 10.1 years. Annual earnings in 1977 of all hired farmworkers averaged $3,265; $1,913 were earned for an average 93 days of hired farmwork; the remainder came from nonfarm employment. Approximately 191,000 persons (7 percent of the work force) were migrants in 1977. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 55 Number: 305524 Creation-Date: 1979-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305524 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305524/files/aer437.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305524 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pollack, Susan L. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1979 Abstract: In 1979, approximately 2.7 million individuals 14 years old and older did farmwork for cash wages and salary. Three-fourths of these workers were White, 12 percent were Hispanic and 13 percent were Black and Other. Most farmworkers were male (78 percent) and young (57 percent were less than 25 years old). Farmworkers most frequently resided in the South (40 percent) and North Central Regions (30 percent); and most lived at nonfarm residences (83 percent). The annual average income in 1979 was $4,185, of which $2,444 was earned from working an average of 102 days at farmwork. The remainder of this income came from nonfarm work. Migrant workers accounted for 8 percent (217,000 persons) of the total hired farmwork force. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 65 Number: 305525 Creation-Date: 1981-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305525 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305525/files/aer473.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305525 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pollack, Susan L. Author-Name: Jackson, William R., Jr. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1981 Abstract: In 1981, approximately 2.5 million people 14 years of age and over did farmwork for cash wages and salary. The racial/ethnic composition of the work force was 73 percent white, 13 percent Hispanic, and 14 percent black and other. Fifty-five percent of the farmworkers were under 25 years old and 77 percent were male. At the time of the survey, more farmworkers resided in the South (40 percent) and North Central (28 percent) regions than in the Northeast and West. About four of five workers had nonfarm residences. The average annual earnings in 1981 were $4,299, of which $2,659 came from an average of 98 days of farmwork. Migrant workers accounted for only about 5 percent of all hired farmworkers. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 67 Number: 305526 Creation-Date: 1983-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305526 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305526/files/aer507.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305526 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pollack, Susan L. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1983: A Statistical Profile Abstract: In 1983, about 2.6 million people 14 years of age and older did farmwork for wages and salary. The work force was 73-percent white, 13-percent Hispanic, and 14-percent black and other races. Fifty percent of all hired farmworkers were under 25 years old, and 78 percent were male. At the time of the survey, 38 percent of the farmworkers resided in the South, 28 percent in the West, 26 percent in the Midwest, and 7 percent in the Northeast. The average annual earnings in 1983 were $4,815 of which $3,138 came from farmwork. Migrants accounted for 9 percent of all hired farmworkers. The number of farmworkers has not changed much over the last 10 years. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 51 Number: 305527 Creation-Date: 1986-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305527 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305527/files/aer554.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305527 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Friend, Reed E. Author-Name: Baum, Samuel Title: Economic, Social, and Demographic Characteristics of Spanish-American Wage Workers on U.S. Farms Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 26 Number: 305528 Creation-Date: 1963-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305528 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305528/files/aer26.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305528 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cable, C. Curtis, Jr. Author-Name: Looney, Zolon M. Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Title: Utilization and Cost of Labor for Ginning Cotton Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital Length: 35 Number: 305529 Creation-Date: 1965-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305529 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305529/files/aer70.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305529 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bowles, Gladys K. Author-Name: Beale, Calvin L. Title: Characteristics of the Population of Hired Farmworker Households Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 26 Number: 305530 Creation-Date: 1965-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305530 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305530/files/aer84.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305530 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Metzler, William H. Author-Name: Loomis, Ralph A. Author-Name: LeRay, Nelson L. Title: The Farm Labor Situation in Selected States, 1965-66 Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital Length: 65 Number: 305531 Creation-Date: 1967-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305531 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305531/files/aer110.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305531 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rapton, Avra Title: Domestic Migratory Farmworkers: Personal and Economic Characteristics Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 36 Number: 305532 Creation-Date: 1967-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305532 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305532/files/aer121.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305532 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rapton, Avra Title: A Socio-Economic Profile of the 1965 Farm Wage Force Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 37 Number: 305533 Creation-Date: 1969-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305533 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305533/files/aer157.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305533 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rowe, Gene A. Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Title: Income of Farm Wageworker Households in 1971 Abstract: There were 2,012,000 households in 1971 that contained at least one person who performed farm wagework during the year. In terms of type of farm wagework, 81 percent of the households were seasonal farm wageworker households, 10 percent were regular, and 13 percent were year-round. Also 7 percent of all farm wageworker households had at least one member who performed migratory farm wagework. (Because some households had more than one type of farm wageworker, these percentages total to more than 100.) Farm wageworker households contained 9,108,000 persons and averaged 4.5 members per household. Of these total members, 2,550,000 (28 percent) performed farm wagework. Median family income for all farm wageworker households in 1971 was $5,712, slightly more than half that for all households in the Nation. Approximately 37 percent of the households had family incomes of $7,500 or more. About 29 percent of them contained six or more members. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 58 Number: 305535 Creation-Date: 1974-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305535 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305535/files/aer251.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305535 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olsen, Duane A. Author-Name: Kuehn, John A. Title: Migrant Response to Industrialization in Four Rural Areas, 1965-70 Abstract: Inmigrants competed on a limited scale with residents for new jobs in four industrializing rural areas in Arizona, the Central Ozarks, Mississippi, and Arkansas during 1965-70. About 22 percent of the jobs surveyed were obtained by new and returning inmigrants, although there apparently was sufficient excess labor locally to fill most positions. In general, inmigrants tended to be younger and to have more education than residents, and they were more likely to fill the managerial positions. Factors other than monetary benefits, including proximity of other family members and more pleasant living conditions, influenced many workers to migrate or return. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 21 Number: 305536 Creation-Date: 1974-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305536 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305536/files/aer270.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305536 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Title: Social and Economic Characteristics of Spanish-Origin Hired Farmworkers in 1973 Abstract: Spanish-origin and other ethnic groups of farm wageworkers are compared by age, sex, education, migratory status, employment, and earnings. Spanish-origin farmworkers in 1973 depended heavily on agriculture as a major source of employment and earnings. They appeared to have few viable alternatives to farmwork. Their farm earnings were generally higher than those of other ethnic groups working in agriculture; however, large household size, high dependency rates, and greater reliance upon agriculture for income may have reduced this economic advantage. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 24 Number: 305537 Creation-Date: 1976-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305537 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305537/files/aer349.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305537 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Author-Name: Rowe, Gene Title: Food Stamp Participation of Hired Farmworker Families Abstract: This report presents a socioeconomic profile of approximately 207,000 hired farmworker families (including 9,000 migrant families) participating in the Food Stamp Program in November 1975 and identifies various factors related to program participation. These families contained approximately 1.1 million family members, averaging 5.3 members per family. Hired farmworker families were almost twice as likely to participate in the Food Stamp Program as all U.S. families. Family income and size, ethnicity, and region were highly associated with farmworker family participation. In addition, the socioeconomic characteristics of farmworker food stamp families differed considerably from those of all hired farmworker families and all U.S. families receiving food stamps. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 74 Number: 305538 Creation-Date: 1978-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305538 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305538/files/aer403.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305538 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: Indirect Farm Labor and Management Costs Abstract: Farmers' contributions to their employees' (and their own) social security, insurance and retirement programs, and other fringe benefits can add more than a third to farm labor costs. Those contributions (some required by law) can also sway farmers' views of mechanization and farm organization (that is, operating as a sole proprietorship, partnership, or corporation). Yet these costs are usually omitted from agricultural studies, so one cannot determine how much the programs add to farm production costs. This report describes the basic employee fringe benefit programs and the range of costs involved so future cost studies can include them. Keywords: Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital Length: 72 Number: 305539 Creation-Date: 1982-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305539 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305539/files/aer496.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305539 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coltrane, Robert Title: Immigration Reform and Agricultural Labor Abstract: For the first time, H-2 immigration legislation for the temporary employment of foreign workers has been designed especially for agriculture. If passed, part of the pending Immigration Reform and Control Act will force farm employers to hire either American workers or legal foreign workers. Although information is sketchy, it appears that labor-intensive farms, particularly in vegetable- and fruit-growing States such as California and Florida, will be most affected by the law. Vegetable, melon, fruit and tree nut, and horticultural specialty farms accounted for 6.4 percent of all U.S. farms and nearly 10 percent of the value of farms sales in 1978. Some employers, at times dependent on illegal foreign workers, may have difficulty filling seasonal jobs with American workers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 36 Number: 305540 Creation-Date: 1984-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305540 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305540/files/aer510.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305540 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Whitener, Leslie A. Title: Counting Hired Farmworkers: Some Points to Consider Abstract: As many as two-thirds of the Nation's hired farmworkers may not have been counted in the 1980 Decennial Census farm labor categories because they were not working on farms in March when the census data were collected. Data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1981 Hired Farm Working Force Survey suggest that the farm labor census data are more likely to describe those workers who are employed in hired farmwork on a year-round basis. In contrast, farmworkers who did not work in March and were excluded from the census tend to be casual or seasonal workers. Because the social and economic characteristics of year-round and seasonal workers differ considerably, research that uses census data to measure or characterize hired farmworkers may obscure important patterns and trends. Keywords: Land Economics/Use, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 12 Number: 305541 Creation-Date: 1984-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305541 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305541/files/aer524.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305541 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pollack, Susan L. Title: Farm Labor Contracting in the United States, 1981 Abstract: About 250,000 people worked for farm labor contractors during 1981 making up 10 percent of all hired farmworkers. Most crew workers (53 percent) were white, 28 percent were Hispanic, and 19 percent were black or of other racial/ethnic groups. Most crew workers lived in the Southeast, North Central Lake States, Southwest, and Lower Pacific Coast regions of the United States. Their earnings averaged $2,772 annually, $1,936 of which came from farmwork. Of the 9,774 people who registered for certification to hire farmworkers for crew work in 1981, 2,557 applied for Department of Labor authorization to transport workers to and from work, and 827 applied for authorization to provide housing for their employees. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 18 Number: 305542 Creation-Date: 1985-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305542 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305542/files/aer542.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305542 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Oliveira, Victor J. Author-Name: Cox, E. Jane Title: The Agricultural Work Force of 1985: A Statistical Profile Abstract: Over 8 million people 14 years of age and older were employed on U.S. farms at some time during 1985, including 2.5 million who did hired farmwork, 2.9 million who operated a farm, and 3.8 million who did unpaid farmwork. Over 1 million workers participated in more than one of these activities. The agricultural work force was predominantly male. Nonfarmwork was an important source of earnings for all three agricultural work force groups. This report presents findings of the 1985 Agricultural Work Force Survey. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 35 Number: 305543 Creation-Date: 1988-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305543 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305543/files/aer582.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305543 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Oliveira, Victor J. Author-Name: Cox, E. Jane Title: The Agricultural Work Force of 1987: A Statistical Profile Abstract: About 7.7 million people aged 14 and older were employed on U.S. farms at some time during 1987. Almost 2.5 million persons were hired farmworkers, 2.8 million operated farms, and about 3.6 million were unpaid farmworkers. Over 1 million, or 13 percent of the agricultural work force, engaged in more than one of these agricultural occupations during the year. Almost half of all operators and hired farmworkers did nonfarmwork at some point during 1987. Almost 70 percent of all unpaid workers did nonfarmwork during the year. Of the 5.4 million households containing an individual who did agricultural work during 1987, about 4.3 million were headed by a farmworker. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 38 Number: 305544 Creation-Date: 1989-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305544 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305544/files/aer609.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305544 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Oliveira, Victor J. Title: Nonfarm Employment of Farm Operators, Hired Farmworkers, and Unpaid Farmworkers Abstract: Over 4.4 million farm operators, hired farmworkers, and unpaid farmworkers, or 57 percent of all persons employed on U.S. farms in 1987, also did nonfarmwork for cash wages or salary. The nonfarmwork accounted for a major portion of their work time and was an important source of income. Relatively few of the farmworkers who did nonfarmwork considered their farm job to be their primary occupation. A logistic multiple regression model was used to estimate the probability that certain factors influenced whether or not a farmworker did nonfarmwork. Age of worker, education level, minority status, head of household status, days spent doing farmwork, and residence in metropolitan areas significantly affected the probability of doing nonfarmwork. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 19 Number: 305545 Creation-Date: 1990-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305545 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305545/files/aer624.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305545 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Oliveira, Victor J. Title: Hired and Contract Labor in U.S. Agriculture, 1987: A Regional Assessment of Structure Abstract: Farmers spent almost $13 billion on hired and contract labor in 1987, accounting for about 12 percent of total U.S. farm production expenses. Contract labor accounted for 15 percent of all labor expenses, up from 10 percent in 1974. Only 46 percent of all U.S. farms had farm labor expenses, but they produced 84 percent of the total value of sales of farm products. Labor use, as measured by expenses for hired and contract labor, varied significantly across farms by the type, size, and geographic location of the farm. California had the greatest number of high-labor-expense counties and accounted for 24 percent of total U.S. farm labor expenses. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 27 Number: 305546 Creation-Date: 1991-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305546 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305546/files/aer648.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305546 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Oliveira, Victor J. Title: A Profile of Hired Farmworkers, 1990 Annual Averages Abstract: An average 886,000 persons age 15 years and older were employed per week as hired farmworkers in 1990. Hired farmworkers tend to be younger and less educated than other wage and salary workers and are more likely to be male, Hispanic, and never married. The median weekly earnings of hired farmworkers was $200, significantly less than the median $360 of all wage and salary workers. The Pacific region (California, Oregon, Washington, Hawaii, and Alaska) employed 24 percent of all U.S. hired farmworkers. This report is the first in a new series examining the demographic and employment characteristics of hired farmworkers, with data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) earnings microdata file. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 15 Number: 305547 Creation-Date: 1992-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305547 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305547/files/aer658.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305547 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Runyan, Jack L. Title: A Profile of Hired Farmworkers: 1992 Annual Averages Abstract: An average of 848,000 persons 15 years of age and older did hired farmwork each week in 1992. Hired farmworkers were more likely to be male, Hispanic, younger, less educated, and never married. They continued to have lower median weekly earnings ($200) than all wage and salary workers ($380), and their earnings appeared to fall farther behind all wage and salary workers between 1990 and 1992. The Pacific region (Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington) employed 26 percent of all U.S. hired farmworkers. This report examines their demographic and employment characteristics, using data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) earnings microdata file. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 20 Number: 305548 Creation-Date: 1994-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305548 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305548/files/aer693.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305548 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Oliveira, Victor J. Author-Name: Effland, Anne B.W. Author-Name: Runyan, Jack L. Author-Name: Hamm, Shannon Title: Hired Farm Labor Use on Fruit, Vegetable, and Horticultural Specialty Farms Abstract: Fruit, vegetable, and horticultural specialty (FVH) farms are the largest users of hired and contract labor on a per-farm basis. Because of the unique nature of FVH production, the use of labor on FVH farms differs markedly from that on other types of farms. FVH production requires a large number of workers for short, intermittent periods during critical planting and harvest seasons. Migrant farmworkers and undocumented foreign workers are most often associated with seasonal hand-harvest jobs in the FVH sector. The use of contract labor is prevalent on fruit and vegetable farms as well. Factors such as future production and consumer demand trends, continued mechanization of FVH production, foreign competition and international trade, immigration reform, and changes in Federal laws, regulations, and programs affecting farm labor could have important implications on the adequacy of farm labor supply on FVH farms. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 35 Number: 305549 Creation-Date: 1993-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305549 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305549/files/aer676.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305549 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Author-Name: Krause, Orville E. Author-Name: Dickason, Clifford Title: Major Uses of Land and Water in the United States with Special Reference to Agriculture: Summary for 1964 Abstract: Excerpt from report summary: Nearly three-fifths of the land area of the United States is used to produce crops and livestock. More than one-fifth is ungrazed forest land; less than 3 percent is in urban and related intensive uses. Areas designated primarily for parks, recreational or wildlife refuges, and various public Installations and facilities account for about 5 percent. The rest -- 12 percent -- is mainly desert, swamp, tundra, and other land of limited surface use. One-fifth of the land area is classified as cropland, but not all is used for crops each year. In 1964, the acreage used for crop production totaled 335 million acres, or 75 percent of the cropland base. The total includes 292 million acres from which crops were harvested, 6 million acres on which crops failed, and 37 million acres of cultivated summer fallow. Of the acreage harvested, 31 million were irrigated. The acreage used for crops was 23 million fewer than in 1949 and 45 million fewer than a decade earlier. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 81 Number: 305570 Creation-Date: 1968-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305570 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305570/files/aer149.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305570 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Title: Major Uses of Land in the United States, Summary for 1969 Abstract: This report summarizes the extent and distribution of major land uses in the United States and, by comparison with earlier land use inventories, documents the changes and trends in land utilization. The entire land area of the country is broadly classed as cropland, grassland pasture, forest land, special uses, and other land. Numerous subclasses reflect component agricultural and nonagricultural uses. Distribution patterns and trends are shown by aggregating and comparing acreages of individual uses at the regional and national levels. State-by-state acreages in various component uses are presented in appendix tables. Among principal sources of data used were reports and records of the Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce; Bureau of Land Management, U. S. Department of the Interior; and several agencies of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Supplemental data were obtained from numerous other Federal and State agencies. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 48 Number: 305571 Creation-Date: 1973-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305571 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305571/files/aer247.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305571 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Title: Major Uses of Land in the United States: 1974 Abstract: The United States has a land area of 2,264 million acres. The major uses of this acreage in 1974 were: cropland, 465 million acres; grassland pasture and range, 598 million acres; forest land, 718 million acres; urban, recreational, and other special uses, 182 million acres; and miscellaneous land, 301 million acres. From 1969 to 1974 cropland, pasture and range, and forest land each decreased about 1 percent while special uses increased 6 percent. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 38 Number: 305572 Creation-Date: 1979-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305572 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305572/files/aer440.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305572 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Title: Major Uses of Land in the United States: 1978 Abstract: Major primary uses of the U.S. land area of 2,264 million acres in 1978 were: cropland, 471 million acres; grassland pasture and range, 587 million acres; forest land, 703 million acres; transportation, recreation, and other special uses, 158 million acres; and miscellaneous land, 345 million acres. From 1974 to 1978, cropland area increased 1 percent and special uses increased 7 percent, while pasture-range and forest land each declined 2 percent. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 28 Number: 305573 Creation-Date: 1982-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305573 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305573/files/aer487.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305573 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Author-Name: Hexem, Roger W. Title: Major Uses of Land in the United States: 1982 Abstract: Major uses of the Nation's 2,265 million acres of land in 1982 were: cropland, 469 million acres; grassland pasture and range, 597 million acres; forest land (exclusive of areas in special- purpose uses), 655 million acres; special uses, 270 million acres; and miscellaneous other land, 274 million acres. Changes in cropland and pasture acreages were barely perceptible during 1978-82. In contrast, forest land (exclusive of areas in special uses) and miscellaneous other land decreased sharply as large acreages in these categories were reclassified as parks, wilderness, wildlife, and related uses. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 34 Number: 305574 Creation-Date: 1985-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305574 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305574/files/aer535.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305574 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daugherty, Arthur B. Title: Major Uses of Land in the United States: 1987 Abstract: Major uses of the Nation's nearly 2.3 billion acres of land in 1987 were: cropland, 464 million acres (20 percent); grassland pasture and range, 591 million acres (26 percent); forest land (exclusive of areas in parks and some other special uses), 648 million acres (29 percent); special uses, 279 million acres (12 percent); and miscellaneous other land, 282 million acres (13 percent). During 1982-87, changes in U.S. cropland, grassland pasture and range, and forest land acreages were quite small, but land in these uses declined. By contrast, special uses (which include parks, wilderness, wildlife, and related uses) and miscellaneous other land (which includes urban land) increased by a combined 3 percent. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 40 Number: 305575 Creation-Date: 1991-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305575 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305575/files/aer643.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305575 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daugherty, Arthur B. Title: Major Uses of Land in the United States, 1992 Abstract: Major uses of the Nation's nearly 2.3 billion acres of land in 1992 were: cropland, 460 million acres (20 percent); grassland pasture and range, 591 million acres (26 percent); forest-use land (total forest land exclusive of forested areas in parks and some other special uses), 648 million acres (29 percent); special uses (which includes parks, wilderness, wildlife and related uses), 281 million acres (12 percent); and miscellaneous other land (which includes urban land), 283 million acres (13 percent). U.S. cropland composition was quite stable, but total area declined from 464 million acres in 1987. Grassland pasture and range, forest-use land, and miscellaneous other land were basically unchanged in aggregate. Special-use area increased less than 1 percent from 1987. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 45 Number: 305576 Creation-Date: 1995-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305576 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305576/files/aer723.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305576 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Author-Name: Dill, Henry W., Jr. Title: Land Use Change in the Southern Mississippi Alluvial Valley, 1950-69 -- An Analysis Based on Remote Sensing Abstract: Special aerial photographic imagery of the Southern Mississippi Alluvial Valley taken in I969 was compared with conventional photographic imagery of the region taken in I950 to obtain data on land clearing, land use, and land use change. In 1969, cropland totaled 13.7 million acres or 57 percent of the 24-million-acre study area and forest covered 7.5 million acres (31 percent) . Less than two decades earlier, forest land predominated with 11.5 million acres (48 percent) and cropland ranked second with 10.0 million acres (41 percent). Grassland accounted for only 4 percent of the area in both 1969 and 1950. During the study period, 3.8 million acres of forest, 0.2 million acres of grassland, and 0.1 million acres of miscellaneous area shifted to crop use. Slightly offsetting these increases, 0.2 million acres of cropland reverted to forest and 0.2 million acres shifted to grassland, urban, and miscellaneous use. Land capability data from another source indicates that as of 1967 about 5.0 million additional acres of forest land could be cleared and used for crops. Keywords: Land Economics/Use, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 30 Number: 305630 Creation-Date: 1971-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305630 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305630/files/aer215.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305630 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Aines, Ronald O. Title: Release of Land from Conservation Reserve Contracts: Adjustments in Land Use, Farmers' Interest in New Land-Retirement Contracts Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 21 Number: 305643 Creation-Date: 1963-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305643 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305643/files/aer34.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305643 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stansberry, Robert R., Jr. Title: The Rural Fringe and Urban Expansion: A Case Study of Prince Georges and Montgomery Counties, Maryland Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 41 Number: 305644 Creation-Date: 1963-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305644 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305644/files/aer43.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305644 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, Hugh A. Title: Rural Residential Recreation Subdivisions Serving the Washington, D.C. Area, 1963 Abstract: Excerpt from the report highlights: A study of 13 rural housing developments built for recreational uses—hereafter referred to as residential recreation subdivisions—-was made in northwestern Virginia and nearby West Virginia. The developments studied are approximately 100 miles from Washington, D.C., or Baltimore, Md. Results are adaptable to other areas in the Nation which have expanding urban complexes. These complexes create new demands for recreational use of privately owned land resources. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 34 Number: 305645 Creation-Date: 1964-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305645 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305645/files/aer59.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305645 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vermeer, James Author-Name: Aines, Ronald O. Title: The Pilot Cropland Conversion Program: Accomplishments in its First Year, 1963 Abstract: Excerpt from the report summary: This is a report of a study of the 1963 Pilot Cropland Conversion Program (CCP) in five areas after its first year of operation . The five areas included one each in North Dakota, Iowa, and Mississippi, and two in Georgia. Most of the land under agreements will remain in the program for 5 years. About a third of the land in North Dakota and a tenth of the land in Georgia will remain in the program for 10 years. Payment for conversion ranged from $8 an acre for the poorest land in the program in North Dakota to $70 an acre for the best land in the program in Iowa. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 51 Number: 305646 Creation-Date: 1964-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305646 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305646/files/aer64.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305646 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wooten, H.H. Title: The Land Utilization Program, 1934 to 1964: Origin, Development, and Present Status Abstract: Excerpt from the report summary: Case studies of 12 projects illustrate the wide diversity of land use problems in different regions of the country—the past ill-adopted use for agriculture, and the shift to use for parks, wildlife refuges, forest, and grasslands. How better usage has been brought about is shown by description of improvement and management. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 92 Number: 305647 Creation-Date: 1965-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305647 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305647/files/aer85.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305647 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brown, Bernard G. Author-Name: Shapiro, Harvey Title: A Case Study of Urban Expansion and Annexation, Harris County, Texas Abstract: Excerpt from the report summary: One approach to the problems created by urban expansion is found in Texas. This State permits certain incorporated cities to annex the unincorporated areas beyond their boundaries without the consent of the inhabitants of the unincorporated areas. The city of Houston, located in one of the wealthiest agricultural counties in Texas, has made liberal use of this annexation provision. Houston expanded by annexation from 73 square miles in 1940 to 350 square miles in 1960. This report describes and analyzes the effects of Houston's annexations during this period. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 53 Number: 305648 Creation-Date: 1965-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305648 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305648/files/aer86.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305648 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Spiegelman, Robert G. Title: Analysis of Urban Agglomeration and its Meaning for Rural People Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 26 Number: 305649 Creation-Date: 1966-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305649 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305649/files/aer96.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305649 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vermeer, James Title: The 1964-65 Cropland Conversion Program: A Description and Appraisal Abstract: Excerpt from the report summary: The 1964-65 Cropland Conversion Program (CCP), an experimental program offered in 101 counties and used in 100 counties, provided payments to farmers for converting land from row crops and small grains to conserving uses under 5-year agreements. Nearly all land in the program was converted to pasture. A study of 446 farms in the program in 12 counties showed no significant differences between CCP farms and other commercial farms in their respective areas in factors such as acreage in farm, percentage of land used for crops, or the proportion of cropland accounted for by base or allotment crops. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 42 Number: 305650 Creation-Date: 1967-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305650 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305650/files/aer111.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305650 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hady, Thomas F. Author-Name: Stinson, Thomas F. Title: Taxation of Farmland on the Rural-Urban Fringe: A Summary of State Preferential Assessment Activity Abstract: Excerpt from the report introduction: In 1950, 13.8 percent of the U.S. population lived in urban fringe areas, as defined by the U.S. Census.1/ By 1960, this proportion had grown to 21.1 percent. It is reasonable to assume that this growth has continued unchecked since that time. Numerous problems affecting both fringe-area residents and State and local governments have accompanied this rapid increase in population. This report is about attempts by the States to meet one of these problems: the rapid increase in tax levies on farm land adjacent to metropolitan areas. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 82 Number: 305651 Creation-Date: 1967-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305651 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305651/files/aer119.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305651 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sokolow, Alvin D Title: Governmental Response to Urbanization: Three Townships on the Rural-Urban Gradient Abstract: Excerpt from the report summary: Local governments in once rural communities respond to urban growth over time by adopting new and expanded services, and by changing their patterns of finance and administration. Areas undergoing the most rapid process of urbanization generally experience the most rapid innovations in government. However, the governmental changes are not automatic nor immediate; a political process operates to translate the conditions of urbanization into new public activities. These findings emerge from a comparative study of three Michigan townships extending westward from Lansing and included in that core city's metropolitan area. From 1950 to 1964, the most urban of these three communities initiated the greatest number of changes in its local governmental programs, structure, finance, and administration. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use, Public Economics Length: 64 Number: 305652 Creation-Date: 1968-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305652 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305652/files/aer132.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305652 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Orville E. Title: Cropland Trends Since World War II -- Regional Changes in Acreage and Use Abstract: Excerpt from the report highlights: Between 1944 and 1964 land classed as cropland (excluding cropland pasture) by the U.S. Census of Agriculture decreased from 403 million acres to 376 million. However, land was being developed in some parts of the country and abandoned or converted from cropland in other places. During this 20-year period, 868 counties showed a total increase of 26.7 million acres of cropland while 2,204 counties showed a total decrease of 53.5 million--a net decrease of 26.8 million. In addition to this net decrease, there was a 39-million-acre increase in non-harvested cropland--land available for crop production but currently unused. Not all land classed as cropland is used every year in the production of crops for harvest. Some is in fallow, some in soil-conserving crops and some completely idle. Thus, harvested land decreased a total of 66 million acres--from 353 million to 287 million. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 15 Number: 305653 Creation-Date: 1970-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305653 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305653/files/aer177.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305653 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McArthur, Robert E. Title: Impact of City-County Consolidation of the Rural-Urban Fringe: Nashville-Davidson County, Tenn. Abstract: This report analyzes the effect of consolidation of city and county governments in Nashville, Tenn., on local public finance and the availability of public services in the rural areas of the county. Comparisons were made between governmental costs and functions before and 3 years after the Metropolitan district was formed. About 300 voters in the rural-urban fringe of the metropolitan area were interviewed to determine their attitudes toward tax changes, services, and political access of the Metropolitan government, compared with the previous city and county governments. In general, the Metro district produced improved services and higher taxes in rural areas, but a majority of the people were satisfied with the change. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use, Public Economics Length: 39 Number: 305654 Creation-Date: 1971-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305654 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305654/files/aer206.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305654 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rush, John D. Title: Farm Accidents in the United States Abstract: Excerpt from report summary: The number of farm-accident fatalities is not declining in proportion to the decline in farm population, partly because of the increasing average age of people on farms. The annual mortality from farm accidents is estimated at from 60 to 70 per 100,000 of farm population. Nonfatal injuries, including both lost-time and no lost-time accidents, occur to about a third of the farm population annually. The lost-time injuries involve about 19 percent of the farm population; while the more serious nonfatal accidents, those resulting in permanent disabilities, destroy or reduce the earning power of about 3 percent of the farm population annually. Keywords: Health Economics and Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 65 Number: 305657 Creation-Date: 1962-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305657 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305657/files/aer17.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305657 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krakowski, Martin Author-Name: Werboff, Michael Author-Name: Hoffnar, Bernard Title: Availability and Use of Health Services: Rural-Urban Comparison Abstract: Excerpt from the report summary: The supply of personnel in health occupations is lower on a per capita basis in rural areas than in urban areas--in 1962 there were 53.9 percent more physicians per 100,000 persons in urban areas than in rural. This may be a reflection of population sparsity or the concentration of lower incomes, both of which would contribute to the lack of support for specialized medical personnel and facilities in rural areas. Though modern transportation has lessened the need for complete local medical services and facilities, persons living in extremely rural areas still do not have the ease of access to specialized and comprehensive medical care that those living in or near metropolitan areas have. This is partly the result of a trend since about 1950 toward specialization in medical practice. In 1950, 36 percent of the physicians were in private practice compared with 61 percent in 1963. Most of these practiced in urban areas. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Health Economics and Policy Length: 32 Number: 305658 Creation-Date: 1968-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305658 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305658/files/aer139.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305658 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Doherty, Neville Title: Rurality, Poverty, and Health: Medical Problems in Rural Areas Abstract: Excerpt from the report introduction: Poverty and illness are often so interwoven that it is difficult to determine which comes first. Though the interrelationship operates in all types of geographic and social settings, the handicaps of illness are intensified in rural areas—partly as a consequence of rural poverty and partly from other factors related to sparse settlement. This report looks at the relative health needs of rural, low-income people; the availability in rural areas of resources to prevent and treat sickness; the way needs and resources operate together to the disadvantage of rural people; and at some corrective measures that are underway or being planned. Keywords: Food Security and Poverty, Health Economics and Policy Length: 14 Number: 305659 Creation-Date: 1970-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305659 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305659/files/aer172.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305659 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Doeksen, Gerald A. Author-Name: Frye, Jack Author-Name: Green, Bernal L. Title: Economics of Rural Ambulance Service in the Great Plains Abstract: In 1969, 221 funeral home businesses provided ambulance service in Oklahoma; by 1973, the number had declined to 124, a 44 percent decrease. Faced with rising labor and equipment costs, funeral home operators chose to discontinue the service. The study area for this report consisted of eight counties in northwest Oklahoma, the socio-economic data being applied to Alfalfa County specifically. A procedure to estimate receipts for Emergency Medical Service (EMS) was designed from the supplied data. Expenses were based on a consideration of each major component comprising an EMS system. These are (1) ambulances, (2) life-saving equipment, (3) technicians with special training, (4) two-way radio communications, and (5) interfacing with the hospital emergency room. With selected assumptions, estimated receipts and expenses were formulated for Alfalfa County, Oklahoma. Four alternative EMS systems were evaluated. The procedures for estimating receipts and expenses were generalized in forms which leaders can adapt to their respective situations. Thus, these forms provide a basis for a self-applied feasibility study for EMS. Keywords: Health Economics and Policy Length: 26 Number: 305661 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305661 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305661/files/aer308.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305661 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fitzwilliams, Jeannette Title: A Profile of U.S. Comprehensive Health Planning Areas Abstract: Excerpt from the report preface: The rural health problem is one of identifying uniquely rural characteristics and of identifying health problem solutions in light of these rural characteristics and needs. It may be divided into three parts: (1) adapting health care delivery systems to meet the needs of a sparse and dispersed population, often with transportation barriers; (2) making urban decisionmakers aware of rural problems, needs, and attitudes, so they will adequately provide for rural areas; and (3) reaching the rural population effectively to educate and motivate them to make the best use of the services provided. This report provides data that may help solve some of these rural problems. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Health Economics and Policy Length: 43 Number: 305662 Creation-Date: 1976-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305662 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305662/files/aer339.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305662 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fritsch, Conrad F. Title: Occupational and Nonoccupational Fatalities on U.S. Farms Abstract: Benchmark data for farm fatalities are developed and analyzed by region and age groups. During 1969-71, occupational fatality rates for farmers and hired farmworkers were between 23.5 and 28 per 100,000 workers. The fatality rate for all farm residents and workers in 1973 was 16.2 per 100,000 persons, down from 17.7 in 1967. Fatalities occur with much greater frequency to persons age 55 and over than to persons under age 55. A greater proportion of self-employed farmworkers are in this higher risk age category than are hired workers, implying that overall occupational fatality rates for self-employed operators are higher than for hired workers. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 23 Number: 305663 Creation-Date: 1976-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305663 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305663/files/aer356.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305663 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fitzwilliams, Jeannette Title: Critical Health Manpower Shortage Areas: Their Impact on Rural Health Planning Abstract: This report describes the 673 medical Critical Health Manpower Shortage Areas (CHMSAs) listed by the Federal Register for February 25, 1975, in terms of the Comprehensive Health Planning (CHP) areas where they are located. It describes how the Rural Health Initiative program is designed to cope with the shortage problem and how this program is related to the work of the Health Service Agencies (HSAs) that are succeeding the CHP councils under the new health planning law. A method for relating CHPs and HSAs in specific areas is indicated. Of the 416 CHPs into which the United States (excluding Alaska and the New England States) was divided as of May 1973, 269 had one or more CHMSAs. In 99, the CHMSAs covered over one-third of the land area. CHPs with very large urbanized areas had relatively few CHMSAs and only 24 CHMSAs contained an urbanized area. On the average, about the same proportion of CHP areas with Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) had CHMSAs as non-SMSA type CHPs--63 percent v. 66 percent. CHP areas with socioeconomic variables deviating adversely from the average had a high proportion of CHMSAs. In 112 CHPs, all of the CHMSAs were outside a circle of 50-mile radius drawn around urbanized areas of 100,000 or more; in 102, part of the CHMSAs were outside the circle. Tests made on CHPs with a high probability that CHMSA designation might have been overlooked found few instances of potential omission. However, findings suggest that possibly different criteria are needed for medical service areas characterized by a large land area with very few residents. Keywords: Health Economics and Policy Length: 24 Number: 305664 Creation-Date: 1977-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305664 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305664/files/aer361.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305664 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Simmons, Will M. Title: An Economic Study of the U.S. Potato Industry Abstract: Excerpt from report summary: During the past half century changes in the potato industry have been truly kaleidoscopic. The industry has been characterized by sharply declining per capita consumption, rapidly increasing specialization and concentration of production, greatly improved breeding and cultural methods, and significant changes in utilization and marketing practices. These and other forces have operated to bring about a big increase in productivity. Between 1920-24 and 1960-61, yield per acre almost tripled, while acreage declined almost 60 percent. During the same period, total production increased less than a fourth, from 223 million to 274 million cwt. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 87 Number: 305665 Creation-Date: 1962-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305665 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305665/files/aer6.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305665 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Townshend-Zellner, Norman Title: The California Raisin Industry: Prices, Returns, Economic Adjustments Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 58 Number: 305666 Creation-Date: 1962-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305666 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305666/files/aer11.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305666 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Powell, Jules V. Author-Name: Reimund, Donn A. Title: The Pecan Shelling and Processing Industry: Practices, Problems, Prospects Abstract: Excerpt from the report preface: Pecan shelling and processing on a large-scale commercial basis is relatively new. Little information has been published concerning the industry--its size, location, and marketing practices and problems. Those who produce and market pecans long have been interested in the composition of the pecan-marketing complex and in how its efficiency might be improved. This study is part of a broad program of research aimed at improving market efficiency and expanding markets for farm products, including pecans. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 30 Number: 305667 Creation-Date: 1962-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305667 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305667/files/aer15.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305667 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dietrich, Raymond A. Author-Name: Williams, Willard F. Author-Name: Miller, Jarvis E. Title: The Texas-Oklahoma Meat Industry: Structure and Marketing Practices Abstract: Excerpt from report objectives: Little information currently is available on the marketing of livestock or meat in Texas and Oklahoma. As an initial effort, therefore, this study is designed to (1) reveal structural characteristics of the marketing system for meat, (2) examine recent changes in basic economic forces such as population, income and adjustments at the retail and farm level and accompanying changes in the Southern Plains meat industry, (3) evaluate recent adjustments in market structure and practices, (4) develop preliminary recommendations with respect to adjustments in market structure that appear consistent with improvements in market performance, and (5) provide data and suggestions on needed areas for additional research. Emphasis in this initial study is placed primarily upon current market structure and historical changes in structure. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 70 Number: 305668 Creation-Date: 1963-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305668 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305668/files/aer39.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305668 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Powell, Jules V. Title: The Pecan Nursery Industry: Structure and Economic Aspects Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 22 Number: 305669 Creation-Date: 1963-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305669 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305669/files/aer44.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305669 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Howell, L. D. Title: The American Textile Industry: Competition, Structure, Facilities, Costs Keywords: Industrial Organization, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 153 Number: 305670 Creation-Date: 1964-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305670 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305670/files/aer58.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305670 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Powell, Jules V. Title: The Domestic Tree Nut Industries, An Economic Appraisal Abstract: Excerpt from report summary: U.S. tree nut industries receive little public attention because they are small relative to some of the major staple crop industries and because their products are often ignored luxury ingredients of our most delectable food products. This report brings together information concerning the production and marketing of our major domestic tree nuts—almonds, filberts, pecans, and walnuts. The growth of the tree nut industries has been rapid since the early 1900’s. From 1930 to 1963; almond production increased 309 percent, pecans about 400 percent, and walnuts 157 percent. Percentage increases in filbert production were greater, but filberts comprise a small part of the total. All of the almonds are produced in California; filberts are produced in Oregon and Washington; and walnuts are produced in California, Oregon, and Washington. Pecans are produced in 14 Southeastern and South-central States. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 46 Number: 305671 Creation-Date: 1964-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305671 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305671/files/aer62.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305671 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Title: The Structure of the U.S. Sweetener Industry Abstract: The sweetener industry is divided into several segments, based on geography, the plant (beet, cane, or corn) from which the sweetener is obtained, and the functions performed by different producers. The production and marketing of sugar in the United States have been controlled by a quota system since 1934. This system, supported by the domestic sugar industry, has been administered so that U.S. sugar prices have usually been well above those in the world market. Individual sugar producers apparently have not had sufficient market power to affect the general level of prices over a long period of time. Producers of corn sirup and dextrose have benefited to some extent from the protection received by the sugar industry, since these products compete with sugar. Saccharin, the principal noncaloric sweetener, competes to some extent with sugar. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization Length: 38 Number: 305672 Creation-Date: 1971-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305672 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305672/files/aer213.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305672 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Russell, Jesse R. Title: Catfish Processing: A Rising Southern Industry Abstract: This study describes the catfish processing industry in nine Southern States in 1970, and attempts to determine factors affecting the economic operation of the 16 plants surveyed. The infant industry--only three of the 16 processors marketed any fish prior to 1968—is still experimenting with different processing and marketing methods. Processing methods include hand labor, machine use, and a combination of both. About 98 percent of the product was sold wholesale in 1970. Obtaining a steady supply of fish--especially in slack summer months--to increase utilization of capacity is the major problem facing the industry. In contrast to a total capacity of 21.3 million pounds (live weight), the plants only processed 6.4 million pounds in 1970. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 39 Number: 305673 Creation-Date: 1972-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305673 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305673/files/aer224.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305673 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lough, Harold W. Title: The Cheese Industry Abstract: The structure and organization of cheese manufacturing and distribution are described. Emphasis is placed on factors affecting the industry such as Government regulation, economic signals, technology, dairy business policies, and competing products, and on special areas of concern such as whey disposition. Trends in production, imports, stocks, and prices are included. Results of a national sample survey of 225 cheese plants are presented. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 75 Number: 305674 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305674 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305674/files/aer294.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305674 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Valdes, Constanza Author-Name: Hjort, Kim Author-Name: Seeley, Ralph Title: Brazil’s Agricultural Competitiveness: Recent Growth and Future Impacts Under Currency Depreciation and Changing Macroeconomic Conditions Abstract: Macroeconomic reforms and policies have contributed to Brazil’s emergence as one of the world’s most competitive agricultural exporters. Brazil’s agricultural sector increased its exports in recent years, despite experiencing one of its worst recessions during 2014-16, falling international commodity prices, and slower demand growth in China and other foreign markets. To understand the forces behind this development, this report examines the effects of changing macroeconomic conditions on Brazil’s agricultural production and trade by simulating impacts of accelerated depreciation of its exchange rate and sustained macroeconomic growth. When the Brazilian currency weakens, higher prices in local currency stimulate production and exports of most major commodities. Simulations show that depreciation of Brazil’s currency results in greater world supplies, lower prices in global markets, and increased competition for U.S. exports. Finally, a simulation of stronger Brazilian economic growth shows that an increase in domestic consumption would have reduced Brazil’s exports of beef, corn, cotton, ethanol, pork, and soybean meal, easing downward pressure on world prices. However, Brazil’s soybean exports would not have been significantly affected by stronger economic growth. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, International Relations/Trade Length: 43 Number: 305689 Creation-Date: 2020-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305689 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305689/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20Brazil%27s%20Agricultural%20Competitiveness_%20Recent%20Growth%20and%20Future%20Impacts%20under%20Currency%20Depreciation%20and%20Changing%20Macroeconomic%20Conditions.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305689 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Prager, Daniel Author-Name: Burns, Christopher Author-Name: Tulman, Sarah Author-Name: MacDonald, James Title: Farm Use of Futures, Options, and Marketing Contracts Abstract: Farming can be a risky endeavor. Weather, pests, and disease can diminish the output from a field or herd. Changes in prices can reduce revenues or increase costs. Farmers may manage the risks from market price fluctuations by using agricultural derivatives, such as futures and options contracts, and committing some production to marketing contracts. This study uses data from the 2016 Agricultural Resource Management Survey to describe the use of futures, options, and marketing contracts by producers, with a primary focus on corn and soybeans. Keywords: Agribusiness, Marketing Length: 39 Number: 305690 Creation-Date: 2020-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305690 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305690/files/USDA%20Farm%20Use%20of%20Futures%2C%20Options%2C%20and%20Marketing%20Contracts.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305690 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coleman-Jensen, Alisha Author-Name: Rabbitt, Matthew P. Author-Name: Gregory, Christian A. Author-Name: Singh, Anita Title: Household Food Security in the United States in 2019 Abstract: This report presents findings from data collected in December 2019 for the year that preceded the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic. An estimated 89.5 percent of U.S. households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2019, with access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households (10.5 percent, down from 11.1 percent in 2018) were food insecure at least some time during the year, including 4.1 percent with very low food security (not significantly different from 4.3 percent in 2018). Very low food security is the more severe range of food insecurity where one or more household members experienced reduced food intake and disrupted eating patterns at times during the year because of limited money and other resources for obtaining food. Among children, changes from 2018 in food insecurity and very low food security were not statistically significant. Children and adults were food insecure in 6.5 percent of U.S. households with children in 2019; very low food security among children was 0.6 percent. In 2019, the typical food-secure household spent 24 percent more on food than the typical food-insecure household of the same size and household composition. About 58 percent of food-insecure households participated in one or more of the three largest Federal nutrition assistance programs: Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly food stamps); Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); and the National School Lunch Program during the month prior to the 2019 survey. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 47 Number: 305691 Creation-Date: 2020-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305691 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305691/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20Household%20Food%20Security%20in%20the%20United%20States%20in%202019.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305691 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Carlson, Andrea Author-Name: Kuczynski, Kevin Author-Name: Pannucci, TusaRebecca Author-Name: Koegel, Kristin Author-Name: Page, Elina T. Author-Name: Tornow, Carina E. Author-Name: Palmer Zimmerman, Thea Title: Estimating Prices for Foods in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey: The Purchase to Plate Price Tool Abstract: The 2018 Farm Bill mandates that the market basket of the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP) be updated every 5 years using current food prices, food composition, food consumption patterns, and dietary guidance. The TFP forms the basis of the maximum allotment for the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits. Current food composition and food consumption data are available through What We Eat in America, the dietary component of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (WWEIA/NHANES). The Dietary Guidelines for Americans provides current dietary guidance. However, food price information that aligns with these data are not available, which limits the economic analysis that can be conducted with the survey data. This report details the construction of the Purchase to Plate Price Tool (PPPT), which uses retail or household scanner data to estimate prices for foods reported consumed by participants in WWEIA/NHANES and compares estimated total food expenditure of WWEIA/NHANES participants to other estimates of food expenditure. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Health Economics and Policy Length: 34 Number: 305692 Creation-Date: 2020-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305692 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305692/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20Estimating%20Prices%20for%20Foods%20in%20the%20National%20Health%20and%20Nutrition%20Examination%20Survey_%20The%20Purchase%20to%20Plate%20Price%20Tool.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305692 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coleman-Jensen, Alisha Author-Name: Rabbitt, Matthew P. Author-Name: Gregory, Christian A. Author-Name: Singh, Anita Title: Statistical Supplement to Household Food Security in the United States in 2019 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 33 Number: 305693 Creation-Date: 2020-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305693 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305693/files/USDA%20ERS%20-%20Statistical%20Supplement%20to%20Household%20Food%20Security%20in%20the%20United%20States%20in%202019.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305693 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davies, Yvonne Author-Name: Trotter, Warren Title: U.S. Peach Industry: Part I. Structure, Trends, and Consumption Projections to 1980 Abstract: This first report of a two-part study dealing with the economics of the peach industry examines the industry's geographic structure, with special emphasis on peaches for canning. Recent trends in production, utilization, price, and consumption are analyzed for both fresh- and processing-market peaches. Interrelationships between fresh- and processing-market prices in the major producing States are investigated, and supply-price relationships for canning-market peaches are developed for each producing region and the United States. The changing pattern of consumer demand for peach products is examined, and regional consumption requirements for canned peach products are projected to 1980. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 63 Number: 305694 Creation-Date: 1971-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305694 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305694/files/aer200.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305694 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davies, Yvonne Author-Name: Trotter, Warren Title: U.S. Peach Industry: Part 2. An Interregional Competitive Model for Canned Peaches Abstract: Interregional competition in growing and canning peaches is the focus of this second report of a two-part study. Regional production and trade patterns which minimize total costs of producing, processing, transporting, and distributing the national pack of canned peaches are determined under various assumed competitive situations. The United States is divided into eight consumption and four production regions to facilitate this analysis. Particular emphasis is given to the economic potential of the Southeast. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 39 Number: 305695 Creation-Date: 1974-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305695 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305695/files/aer253.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305695 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brooker, John R. Author-Name: Pearson, James L. Title: The Winter Fresh Tomato Industry -- A Systems Analysis Abstract: Aggregate monetary and quantitative effects of supply-management policies on the fresh winter tomato industry participants were estimated. A computer simulation model was constructed with an interseasonal phase and an intraseasonal phase. It simulates the longrun effects of various supply-management policies that could be applied to tomatoes grown in Florida and tomatoes imported from Mexico in order to stabilize weekly f.o.b. prices at prespecified levels. The effects were higher, more stable retail prices and slightly smaller quantities consumed. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Marketing, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 67 Number: 305696 Creation-Date: 1976-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305696 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305696/files/aer330.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305696 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gee, C. Kerry Author-Name: Magleby, Richard S. Author-Name: Nielsen, Darwin B. Author-Name: Stevens, Delwin M. Title: Factors in the Decline of the Western Sheep Industry Abstract: Former sheep producers in Colorado, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming were surveyed to determine why they had discontinued sheep production. From 40 to 60 percent were found to have continued in some form of agricultural business, usually involving cattle. The others had retired or taken off-farm employment. Generally, the former sheep producers had smaller scale operations, more equity in the business, higher predation losses, lower earnings, and were older than producers continuing in the sheep business. Factors which they rated of greatest importance in their decisions to discontinue sheep production were high predation losses, low lamb and wool prices, shortage of good hired labor, and their own age. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 37 Number: 305697 Creation-Date: 1977-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305697 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305697/files/aer377.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305697 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Paul, Duane A. Author-Name: Kilmer, Richard L. Author-Name: Altobello, Marilyn A. Author-Name: Harrington, David N. Title: The Changing U.S. Fertilizer Industry Abstract: Although it is relatively concentrated, the U.S. fertilizer industry appears to respond to demand and supply signals. But the speed of response has slowed because of escalated construction and energy costs and uncertainties regarding the availability of raw materials. Economies of scale have necessitated the construction of larger manufacturing facilities so that firms can be competitive. The effect, rather than the cause, has been an increase in concentration and integration and in barriers to entry. Manufacturing plant locations have become more oriented to inputs than to markets. Much of the newer nitrogen capacity is in the Gulf Coast States, close to natural gas supplies and to water transportation for both inland and coastal movements. Many new plants are being built as parts of multiproduct complexes, entailing considerable cost savings in coordinating the manufacture of several products at a single location. The United States is a net importer of potash, but at the minimum it is self-sufficient in nitrogen and phosphate. More than three-fourths of the potash used domestically in fertilizer is of Canadian origin, and nearly all of the North American potash reserves are in Canada. Keywords: Agribusiness, Industrial Organization, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 108 Number: 305698 Creation-Date: 1977-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305698 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305698/files/aer378.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305698 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Benson, Verel W. Author-Name: Witzig, Thomas J. Title: The Chicken Broiler Industry: Structure, Practices, and Costs Abstract: Extensive changes in production, processing, and marketing during the last few decades have changed the chicken broiler industry from one of small, widely scattered farms to one that is large, concentrated, and efficient. More than 99 percent of all broilers produced are grown under contract and by integrated firms which vary in size of operation and complexity. About 84 percent of all production is concentrated in 10 States. Some of the other factors that contributed to these changes are costs, energy use, prices, processing, marketing, and demand. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 57 Number: 305699 Creation-Date: 1977-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305699 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305699/files/aer381.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305699 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Folwell, Raymond J. Author-Name: Baritelle, John L. Title: The U.S. Wine Market Abstract: U.S. wine buyers are Identified by major demographic characteristics, wine products purchased, and intended use of these products. Market demand functions are estimated by wine type and region. The typical wine purchasing household, according to the survey of 7,000 households on which this study is based, has higher income, fewer members, and more education than average. About half of U.S. households never buy wine, and less than 5 percent purchase more than half the wine. Two important variables influence amount of wine purchased: wine price and income level. In some markets, total industry revenues would increase if prices were raised. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 157 Number: 305700 Creation-Date: 1978-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305700 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305700/files/aer417.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305700 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Title: U.S. Wheat Industry Abstract: U.S. wheat production doubled between 1950 and 1975. Improved yields per acre accounted for most of the increase. Since 1974, however, the growth in U.S. wheat yields per acre has leveled off. About half of the U.S. wheat crop is exported, but the somewhat erratic nature of foreign demand has caused considerable instability in the U.S. wheat industry. Large carryovers have been a problem in most years since 1950, despite Government programs to regulate wheat acreage, subsidize producers, store wheat, and facilitate wheat exports. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade Length: 122 Number: 305701 Creation-Date: 1979-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305701 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305701/files/aer432.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305701 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Holder, Shelby H., Jr. Author-Name: Grant, Warren R. Title: U.S. Rice Industry Abstract: Rice produced in the United States was 1.2 percent of world production in crop year 1977/78, but accounted for 30 percent of all rice in international trade in calendar year 1978. Sixty-one percent of U.S. rice disappearance in 1977/78 was accounted for by exports to over 100 countries; the remainder was consumed domestically for direct-food use, beer, and processed foods. Expansion of the U.S. rice industry will depend heavily on increasing exports. Beer processors will become an increasingly important outlet in the domestic market. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 150 Number: 305702 Creation-Date: 1979-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305702 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305702/files/aer433.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305702 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Title: The Farm Pesticide Industry Abstract: Two firms accounted for 74 percent of the corn herbicide market and two firms accounted for 61 percent of the soybean insecticide market in 1976. This study examines the pesticide industry by component markets for specific types of pesticides and crops. The share of the market accounted for by leading producers when the industry is examined by these specialized markets is much greater than in analyses reported elsewhere which considered the pesticide industry as a single market. The relative positions of leading pesticide-producing firms shifted significantly during 1966-76. Keywords: Agribusiness, Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 30 Number: 305703 Creation-Date: 1980-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305703 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305703/files/aer461.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305703 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lasley, Floyd A. Title: The U.S. Poultry Industry: Changing Economics and Structure Abstract: While per capita consumption of poultry meat in 1981 has nearly doubled since 1960, retail prices rose only 74 percent for broilers, 67 percent for turkeys, and 59 percent for eggs. Vertical integration and technological advancements in the poultry industry have vastly improved production and efficiency, and enabled producers to hold costs down. Farm sales totaled $3.6 billion for eggs, $4.5 billion for broilers, and over $1.2 billion for turkeys in 1981, up from about $2 billion for eggs, $533 million for broilers, and $270 million for turkeys during the early fifties. Consumers paid only 86 percent more for poultry in 1981 than they did in 1960, compared with a 212-percent increase for all food. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 32 Number: 305704 Creation-Date: 1983-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305704 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305704/files/aer502.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305704 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lasley, Floyd A. Author-Name: Henson, William L. Author-Name: Jones, Harold B., Jr. Title: The U.S. Turkey Industry Abstract: Americans are eating more turkey than ever because of lower real prices and new products. Production and consumption have expanded principally in the off season; both are now year-round activities. Further processed products represent the fastest growing sector of the industry. Turkey processors have expanded; the eight largest firms now process more turkey than the entire industry did in 1960. More turkeys are raised on fewer farms, with 1,608 farms selling 90 percent of all turkeys. About 53 percent are raised on farms selling an annual equivalent of 1,000 tons of live turkey. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 70 Number: 305705 Creation-Date: 1985-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305705 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305705/files/aer525.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305705 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: The Beef Cow-Calf Industry, 1964-87: Location and Size Abstract: The number of beef cows in the United States increased from 32.7 million in 1964 to a record 45.7 million in 1975 and then steadily declined to 31.7 million in 1987. The average herd size increased from 24.7 million in 1964 to 37.6 million in 1987. The fragmented nature of acreage used for grazing will continue to limit herd size expansion. With limited herd size expansion, it will be difficult to achieve economies of size that producers with sufficient acreage obtain. Producers expand and reduce the national herd based on net cash beef cow income. Returns have generally not been consistently adequate to cover fixed asset replacement costs and to provide competitive labor, management, and investment returns. Many producers continue their activities, accept low returns, and probably subsidize their beef cow herds from other income sources. Keywords: Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 56 Number: 305706 Creation-Date: 1992-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305706 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305706/files/aer659.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305706 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Author-Name: Willett, Lois Schertz Title: The U.S. Beekeeping Industry Abstract: An estimated 125-150,000 beekeepers in the United States operate between 3.2 and 3.4 million honeybee colonies. Less than 2 percent of beekeepers are full-time (commercial) operators (300 or more colonies), more than 90 percent are hobbyists (fewer than 25 colonies), and the remainder are part-time (25-299 colonies). Honeybee pollination is vital to U.S. agriculture. Most pollination is provided free as a byproduct of honey production. In 1988, beekeepers derived 53 percent of their income from honey program payments. Total honey program payments have declined from $100 million in 1988 to $16 million in 1992. This report updates information on the beekeeping industry and its relationship to agriculture and the environment Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 82 Number: 305707 Creation-Date: 1994-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305707 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305707/files/aer680.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305707 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: VanSickle, John J. Author-Name: Belibasis, Emil Author-Name: Cantliffe, Dan Author-Name: Thompson, Gary Author-Name: Oebker, Norm Title: Competition in the U.S. Winter Fresh Vegetable Industry Abstract: Florida and Mexico compete vigorously in the U.S. winter market for several vegetables. Florida gained in competitive advantage during 1985/86-1990/91 primarily because of gains in pricing advantage. The cost of producing and marketing vegetables in select terminal markets shows that Florida's advantage increased for tomatoes produced in the Dade County and Palmetto-Ruskin production areas and for cucumbers and squash. Florida's advantage decreased for tomatoes produced in southwest Florida and for bell peppers and eggplant. U.S. import duties generally contribute to Mexico's high marketing costs, which offset the lower cost of producing vegetables in Mexico. Those cost advantages, however, lost significance because of lower gains in productivity caused by decreased investment in technology, higher costs of resources over which the Mexican Government had relinquished control, and lower labor productivity. NAFTA provides for the eventual removal of tariffs between the two countries. Tariffs are generally a small part of the total unit cost of production and marketing for these crops, ranging from 4 percent for squash to 14 percent for cucumbers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 74 Number: 305708 Creation-Date: 1994-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305708 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305708/files/aer691.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305708 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Relationships of Food Costs, Expenditures, and Prices, 1960-74 Abstract: Per capita expenditures for food for use at home leaped 86 percent between 1960 and 1974. Price increases were mainly responsible. Changes in household composition also contributed. Slightly moderating factors included small apparent declines in quantities consumed and shifts among foods consumed. Price movements between low-priced and high-priced foods are examined through the calculation of special price indexes. Time series measures, three consumer expenditure surveys, and the ARS food plans are discussed. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 13 Number: 305709 Creation-Date: 1976-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305709 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305709/files/aer329.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305709 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Marketing Spreads for Food Products in 1977 Abstract: Overall food prices rose 6.3 percent in 1977 over 1976. Grocery store prices climbed 6.0 percent while away-from-home eating prices rose 7.6 percent. Fish and imported foods, particularly coffee, accounted for two-thirds of the 6-per cent increase In grocery store prices. Higher processing and distribution costs accounted for most of the other third. The price rise for domestically produced farm foods was much lower. The retail cost of a market basket of farm foods averaged 2.2 percent higher than in 1976. Nearly all of the increase was accounted for by an increase of 3.3 percent in the farm-retail price spread representing charges for processing and distribution. However, the spread rose much less than prices of marketing inputs, such as labor and food containers, probably due to gains in productivity, greater increases in margins on other products to offset rising costs, and a decline in profit rates of food manufacturers. Returns to farmers for food products averaged about 0.4 percent higher than in 1977, mainly due to higher returns for fresh fruits and vegetables. Farmers received an average of 38.8 cents of each dollar spent by consumers for farm foods in 1977--fractionally lower than in 1976, and 3 cents less than in 1975. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 42 Number: 305710 Creation-Date: 1978-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305710 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305710/files/aer398.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305710 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sexauer, Benjamin H. Author-Name: Mann, Jitendar S. Title: Food Expenditure Patterns of Single-Person Households Abstract: Single-person households differ widely in their food purchases according to income, age, and sex. Young upper income men spend more than half their food dollars dining out, while elderly lower income women spend only about 10 percent. The young spend more than three times per week than the elderly on soft drinks. Men spend more on prepared foods, (like frozen dinners) than women, and lower income young men spend more on prepared foods than any other of the 12 subgroups studied. Single-person households spend more on food than do multiperson households per person. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 22 Number: 305711 Creation-Date: 1979-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305711 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305711/files/aer428.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305711 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Author-Name: King, Richard A. Title: U.S. Food Expenditures, 1954-1978: New Measures at Point of Sale and by Type of Purchaser Abstract: The series currently used to estimate food expenditures yield incomplete and often conflicting data. The new series described here is more comprehensive. Called the total expenditures series, it reports total U.S. food sales by all retailers of food consumed both on- and off-premises. The series also includes food provided to military personnel, and food served in hospitals, institutions, and schools, where separate sales figures for food are unavailable. The series separates the total figures by different types of sellers and different food categories and provides estimates of total U.S. food expenditures between 1954 and 1978. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 29 Number: 305712 Creation-Date: 1979-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305712 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305712/files/aer431.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305712 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Marketing Spreads for Food Products in 1979 Abstract: Retail food prices in grocery stores were 10.8 percent higher in 1979 than in 1978. The largest Increase was for red meat, up 17 percent, reflecting a 24-percent increase in Choice beef prices. Higher farm values for food commodities, up 11.4 percent, accounted for a third of the increase. The spread between farm and retail prices (representing charges made for processing; and distributing foods after they leave the farm) was 11.9 percent wider and accounted for slightly over half the food price increase. Higher prices for fish and imported foods accounted for the remainder of the increase. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 58 Number: 305713 Creation-Date: 1980-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305713 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305713/files/aer449.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305713 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Farm to Retail Price Spreads for Food Products in 1980 Abstract: The rise in food prices in 1980 was the smallest in 3 years and well below the inflation rate for all prices in the economy. For domestically produced foods, both the farm value and food-industry charges for processing and marketing rose less than in 1979, limiting the retail price rise. However, retail prices for fish and imported foods, particularly sugar, rose more sharply. The farm to retail price spread rose more than the farm value of foods and was the principal contributor to the increase in food prices. As in past years, about a third of consumer expenditures for domestically produced foods paid for the farm value of foods and the rest was needed to pay for the marketing bill. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 49 Number: 305714 Creation-Date: 1981-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305714 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305714/files/aer465.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305714 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gallo, Anthony E. Author-Name: Hamm, Larry G. Author-Name: Zellner, James A. Title: Couponing's Growth in Food Marketing Abstract: The number of cents-off coupons distributed by manufacturers and retailers rose from 10 billion to 90 billion between 1965 and 1980. About 80 percent of U.S. households redeemed coupons in 1979, making coupons the most rapidly growing form of food advertising. Although coupons still make up the smallest portion of all major food advertising, their value rose from less than 6 percent of total advertising expenditures in 1970 to 11 percent in 1979. This report analyzes the use of coupons by consumers, as a marketing tool by manufacturers and retailers, and in the marketing of farm produce. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 22 Number: 305715 Creation-Date: 1982-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305715 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305715/files/aer486.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305715 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Farm to Retail Price Spreads for Food Products in 1981 Abstract: The farm to retail price spread has been the main contributor to the rise in retail food prices in recent years. This report contains analysis of the farm to retail spread for a market basket of foods and selected items including beef, pork, milk, poultry, potatoes, and bread. The 1981 farm value averaged 35 percent of the price for a market basket of foods, dropping from 37 percent in 1980, and was the lowest in two decades. In 1981, abundant food supplies held down farm prices; retail prices rose faster because of processing and marketing charges. This report also analyzes food industry labor productivity; profit margins; input costs such as labor, packaging, and energy; and consumer food expenditures. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 79 Number: 305716 Creation-Date: 1982-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305716 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305716/files/aer488.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305716 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Farm to Retail Price Spreads for Food Products in 1982 Abstract: Retail grocery food prices Increased 3.4 percent In 1982, half the 1981 rate and the least in 6 years. The slowdown reflected abundant supplies of farm products, weak demand, and a smaller rise in fish and Imported food prices. The farm value of USDA's market basket of foods rose only 1 percent in 1982. Farm values for most foods fell although those of fresh fruit and pork increased sharply. The farm-value share of a dollar spent at foodstores remained low at 35 percent. The farm to retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose by 5.1 percent, the slowest in 5 years. Food industry marketing costs increased at half their 1981 rate, largely because of a slower rise in wages. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 52 Number: 305717 Creation-Date: 1983-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305717 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305717/files/aer500.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305717 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1984 Abstract: Retail grocery food prices increased 3.8 percent in 1984, compared with a 2.1- percent rise in 1983. The larger rise reflected tighter supplies of some farm products, higher farm prices, and a bigger rise in the farm to retail price spread. Food price increases for both years were much weaker than in recent years, and the share of income going for food continued downward. The farm value of USDA's market basket of foods rose 5.3 percent in 1984, following a 2.2-percent drop a year earlier. The farm-value share of a dollar spent at foodstores rose to 34 percent from 33 percent. The farm to retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose by 3.2 percent. Food industry marketing costs increased at a moderate rate, largely because of a relatively small rise in wages and salaries of workers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 54 Number: 305719 Creation-Date: 1985-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305719 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305719/files/aer537.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305719 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service, USDA Title: Food Marketing Review, 1985 Abstract: Sales in the U.S. food marketing system reached an estimated half a trillion dollars in 1985, a 3.5-percent real increase above 1984, compared with the 2.3-percent real increase in gross national product. The food marketing system comprised over 1 million firms in 1985 in food manufacturing, wholesaling, retailing, and service. Only food service shows a long-term increase in total number of firms. Because the food marketing system benefits from a low-inflation economy which allows costs to be held down, 1985 was a stable year as farm prices fell and wages and marketing costs increased moderately. This report analyzes these and other developments, structural changes, and the outlook for the U.S. food marketing system. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 62 Number: 305720 Creation-Date: 1986-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305720 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305720/files/aer549.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305720 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service, USDA Title: Food Marketing Review, 1986 Abstract: U.S. food marketing sales likely will reach an estimated $555 billion in 1986, with food and beverage sales of $485 billion and $70 billion in nonfood sales, 5 percent over 1985. Food marketing will continue to be the largest U.S. marketing system, accounting for about one-tenth of both U.S. employment and gross national product (GNP). The food marketing system's contribution to GNP will be nearly nine times the value of the U.S. farm system's food-related contribution. Food manufacturers, retailers, and wholesalers will rank first in sales among all manufacturers, retailers, and wholesalers. This report analyzes these and other developments in the U.S. food marketing system. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 90 Number: 305721 Creation-Date: 1987-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305721 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305721/files/aer565.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305721 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1987 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, increased 4.1 percent in 1987, compared with a 3.2-percent rise in 1986. The larger rise reflected a 4.3-percent increase in prices of food bought in grocery stores for consumption at home compared with a 2.9-percent rise in 1986. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, rose 2.3 percent. Farm value of foods had dropped 8 percent the previous 2 years. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose by 6.2 percent, partly reflecting higher food industry labor costs from rising employment. Higher advertising, packaging, and other food marketing expenses also contributed to the rise in the farm-to-retail price spread. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 60 Number: 305722 Creation-Date: 1988-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305722 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305722/files/aer596.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305722 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service, USDA Title: Food Marketing Review, 1988 Abstract: The value of mergers in the U.S. food marketing system in 1988 reached the highest level in U.S. history. The four largest mergers announced or completed were valued at $47 billion compared with the previous high of $26 billion in 1985 for all recorded transactions. Sales of the Nation's food marketing system reached $638 billion. Advertising expenditures rose to an estimated $11.5 billion. About 10,600 new grocery products were introduced. The Nation's food processors spent $8.5 billion on new plant and equipment, including 369 new plant projects. The seventh consecutive balance of trade deficit in processed foods fell from $5.6 billion in 1987 to $3.3 billion in 1988. U.S. food marketing firms invested $16 billion abroad in 1987, while foreign firms invested $22.5 billion in U.S. firms. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 122 Number: 305723 Creation-Date: 1989-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305723 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305723/files/aer614.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305723 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1988 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, increased 4.1 percent in 1988, the same increase as in 1987. But prices rose at a much higher rate in the second half of 1988 than in the first half due to the severe drought and other market factors. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, rose 3.6 percent. Farm value of foods had dropped in 2 of the previous 3 years. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores was 30 percent, unchanged from 1987. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 4.7 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs used in handling, processing, and retailing foods. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 62 Number: 305724 Creation-Date: 1989-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305724 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305724/files/aer615.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305724 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1989 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, increased 5.8 percent in 1989, the largest increase since 1981. Higher farm prices and costs of processing and distribution both contributed to the price increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, rose 6.7 percent. This was only the second time in the decade that the rise in farm value equaled or exceeded the rise in food prices. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1989 was 30 percent, unchanged from 1988. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 7.1 percent, reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor and packaging, used by the food industry. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 62 Number: 305725 Creation-Date: 1990-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305725 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305725/files/aer636.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305725 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1990. Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 5.8 percent in 1990, the same percentage increase as the year before. Higher farm prices and charges for processing and distribution both contributed to the price increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDAs market basket of foods, also rose 5.8 percent. But the increase in farm value was smaller than the 7.1-percent rise in retail prices of these foods in 1990. (The 7.1-percent market basket increase excludes away-from-home meals and includes fewer commodities compared with the 5.8-percent CPI all-food index.) The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1990 was 30 percent, unchanged from 1989. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 7.7 percent, reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor and energy, that the food industry used. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 57 Number: 305726 Creation-Date: 1991-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305726 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305726/files/aer651.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305726 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service, USDA Title: Food Marketing Review, 1991 Abstract: Retail sales of the U.S. food marketing system were flat in 1990 and declined in 1991, after adjustments for price increases, due to the recession. Nevertheless, food manufacturers and retailers showed continued increases in profitability from operations (excluding interest expense), reflecting wage and producer price stability and streamlining of operations. Food manufacturing and retailing continue to be among the most highly leveraged U.S. industries because of large leveraged buyouts in the late 1980's. Mergers and leveraged buyout transactions fell sharply in 1990 and 1991 from the phenomenal levels of recent years in both volume and value. Competition among larger and fewer firms for a share of the food dollar and limited shelf space was reflected in record new product introductions, consumer advertising expenditures, and retail promotions, including payments to retailers to stock new products. But even in some highly concentrated industries, price discounts appeared prevalent. The system's performance continued its spectacular strength of recent years as reflected in increased globalization, higher levels of new plant and equipment expenditures, and outstanding performance for common stock owners. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 148 Number: 305727 Creation-Date: 1992-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305727 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305727/files/aer657.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305727 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1991 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 2.9 percent in 1991, half the 1990 price increase of 5.8 percent. Higher charges for processing and distribution mainly accounted for the price increase. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 6.7 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor and energy, that the food industry used. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, declined 6.2 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1991 was 27 percent, down from 30 percent in 1990. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 57 Number: 305728 Creation-Date: 1992-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305728 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305728/files/aer662.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305728 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1992 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 1.2 percent in 1992, less than half the 1991 price increase of 2.9 percent . The 1992 increase was the lowest since 1967, when the index rose 0.9 percent. Higher charges for processing and distribution mainly accounted for the 1992 increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, declined 2.5 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1992 was 26 percent, down from 27 percent in 1991. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA’s market basket of foods rose 2 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 53 Number: 305729 Creation-Date: 1993-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305729 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305729/files/aer672.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305729 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service, USDA Title: Food Marketing Review, 1992-93 Abstract: U.S. grocery sales were over $820 billion in 1993. Profits from operations for food manufacturers and retailers rose in 1992 and 1993 because of continued wage and producer price stability, a weaker dollar, and lower interest rates. Merger and leveraged buyout transactions fell in 1991, rose in 1992 but fell again in 1993. Debt levels increased. In 1993, aggressive competition for market shares resulted in record new product introductions, intensive couponing, strong private label sales, and price weakening. New plant and equipment and research and development expenditures reached new highs. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 160 Number: 305730 Creation-Date: 1994-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305730 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305730/files/aer678.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305730 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Food Cost Review, 1993 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 2.2 percent in 1993. This increase was less than the overall increase in the CPI for the third consecutive year. Higher charges for processing and distribution mainly accounted for the 1993 increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA’s market basket of foods, rose 1.6 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1993 was 26 percent, the same as in 1992. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 2.9 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 53 Number: 305731 Creation-Date: 1994-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305731 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305731/files/aer696.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305731 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Elitzak, Howard Title: Food Cost Review, 1995 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 2.4 percent in 1994. This increase was less than the overall increase in the CPI for the fourth consecutive year. Higher charges for processing and distribution mainly accounted for the 1994 increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, fell 3.7 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1994 was 24 percent, a decline of 2 percent from 1993. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 4.5 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 50 Number: 305732 Creation-Date: 1996-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305732 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305732/files/aer729.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305732 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Elitzak, Howard Title: Food Cost Review, 1996 Abstract: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 3.3 percent in 1996. This increase was greater than the overall increase in the CPI (which rose 2.9 percent) for the second consecutive year. Higher charges for processing and distributing food, as measured by the farm-to-retail price spread, were primarily responsible for the 1996 increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, rose 8.1 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1996 was 25 percent, an increase of 1 percent from 1995. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 3.2 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 44 Number: 305733 Creation-Date: 1997-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305733 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305733/files/aer761.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305733 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wiser, Vivian Author-Name: Bowers, Douglas E. Title: Marketing Research and Its Coordination in USDA: A Historical Approach Abstract: For nearly 100 years, administration of marketing research within the U.S. Department of Agriculture and related agencies has ranged from nearly complete centralization in one agency to having marketing research in several agencies coordinated at a higher level. Coordination has been the subject of many studies, but no one method has proven entirely satisfactory. Marketing research is a useful case study of the administration of agricultural research. Keywords: Marketing, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 123 Number: 305830 Creation-Date: 1981-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.305830 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/305830/files/aer475.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:305830 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gray, James R. Author-Name: Goodsell, Wylie D. Title: Cattle Ranches: Organization, Costs, and Returns, Southwestern Nonmigratory Grazing Area, 1940-59 Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 45 Number: 307151 Creation-Date: 1961 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307151 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307151/files/aer1.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307151 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starbird, Irving R. Author-Name: Vermeer, James Title: Tractors and Preharvest Equipment, Delta Area, Mississippi: Costs of Owning and Operating by Size of Farm, 1957 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: This report presents the findings of one phase of a study of farm organization, costs, and practices on cotton farms in the Delta area of Mississippi. It is based on an enumerative survey of 163 operating units for the year 1957. Estimates of the costs of owning and operating preharvest items of equipment by size of farm in the Delta are presented. Analyses of equipment costs were made for four size-of-farm groups in terms of acreage of cropland: (1) Less than 60 acres, (2) 60 to 399 acres, (3) 400 to 999 acres, and (4) 1,000 or more acres. Information on equipment owned and used was obtained from farmers; secondary sources of cost and performance data were used in estimating annual costs of ownership and operation Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 51 Number: 307152 Creation-Date: 1961-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307152 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307152/files/aer2.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307152 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brown, W. Herbert Author-Name: Caton, Douglas D. Title: Cotton Farms, San Joaquin Valley, California: Organization, Costs, and Returns, 1947-59 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Costs and returns data for 1947 through 1959 are presented in this report for three size types of cotton farms in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Between 1947-49 and 1959, net farm incomes on the three types of farms trended upward. The trend was greatest on the large cotton-general farms and least on the cotton-specialty farms. The upward trend in net farm income was due mainly to increases in size (measured in inputs) of farm and increased physical efficiency. Increased physical efficiency contributed more to the upward trend than did the increase in size of farm as measured by inputs. After about 1952, price changes generally had a downward effect on net farm income. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 30 Number: 307153 Creation-Date: 1961-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307153 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307153/files/aer3.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307153 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nikolitch, Radoje Title: Family and Larger-Than-Family Farms: Their Relative Position in American Agriculture Abstract: Excerpt from the report Highlights: An overwhelming majority of United States farms are family—operated; the larger-than-family farms represent only a small proportion of all farms. Thus, in 1954, there were 24 family farms for each larger-than-family farm. Dominance of family farms was most pronounced in the Lake States, the Com Belt, and the Northern Plains, where there were 48 family farms for each larger-than-family farm. It was least pronounced in the Mountain and Pacific Regions, where there were only 9 family farms for each larger-than-family farm. The proportion of family farms increased from 95.2 percent of all farms in 1944 to 96 percent in 1954. This increase was most marked with respect to large commercial farms. In 1954, family farms constituted 86.6 percent of all farms with $5,000 or more of farm marketings, as compared with 83 percent in 1949. The number of family farms selling $5,000 or more of farm products increased from 1 million in 1949 to 1.2 million in 1954 — a 20-percent increase. In contrast, large-than-family farms with these marketings decreased for the same period from 202,000 to 174,000 — a 14-percent decline. The increasing proportion of family farms, especially in the larger producing groups, was evident also in all main farming regions. Again, the largest increase was registered in the Lake States, the Corn Belt, and the Northern Plains, and the smallest in the Mountain and Pacific Regions. Keywords: Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 48 Number: 307154 Creation-Date: 1962-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307154 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307154/files/aer4.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307154 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Barnhill, Harold E. Title: Resource Requirements on Farms for Specified Operator Incomes Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The central purpose of the study on which this report is based was to determine the minimum complement of resources needed to enable farm operators to achieve specified levels of earnings for their labor and management. To carry out this purpose, 8 types of farms were budgeted for 4 levels of operator earnings in 15 selected areas. The budgets describe resource requirements for efficiently organized farms making full use of improved practices and available technology. For this reason, the budgets may characterize rather closely the more progressive and adequate-size farms in agriculture, although they do not necessarily describe current production and income relationships on average or typical farms. Keywords: Farm Management, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 34 Number: 307155 Creation-Date: 1962-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307155 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307155/files/aer5.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307155 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brown, W. Herbert Title: Peanut-Cotton Farms Organization, Costs, and Returns, Southern Coastal Plains, 1944-60 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: The number of field crop and general farms in the southern Coastal Plains reported by the census declined about two-thirds from 1945 to 1959. These are chiefly peanut-cotton farms. The reduction resulted from a decline in the number of sharecroppers, the conversion of small commercial farms into part-time farms and rural residences, farm consolidation, and the changing of some of these farms to other types of commercial farming. Net farm incomes on peanut-cotton farms varied from a low of $1,500 per farm in 1946 to a high of $3,467 in 1958. Net incomes on these farms were generally low compared with incomes on other major types of farms in the United States for which comparable data are available. The return per $100 invested is as high as on most other farm types, but the size of farm is so small that the annual income is relatively low. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 33 Number: 307156 Creation-Date: 1962-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307156 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307156/files/aer7.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307156 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frye, Robert E. Title: Effect of the Pilot Food Stamp Program on Retail Food Store Sales Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Dollar sales of retail stores in the pilot Food Stamp Program were up 8 percent, after adjustment for seasonal variation, from sales reported prior to initiation of the Program, according to data from a representative sample of stores in areas of Detroit, Mich., and selected counties in Illinois, Kentucky, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Sample stores from which sales information was obtained accounted for from 50 percent to nearly all of estimated total retail food store sales in all areas except Detroit where the test sample of stores was drawn to represent only low income-sections of the city. Combined sales data from all test areas indicated that after the introduction of food coupons, both meat and produce sales increased in about the same proportion as total sales. Sales of products classified as groceries and all other items were 9 percent higher in September-October, 1961 than in April-May, 1961, before coupons were introduced. Dairy products, eggs, and in some instances frozen foods, were among the items included in this group. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 18 Number: 307157 Creation-Date: 1962-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307157 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307157/files/aer8.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307157 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reese, Robert B. Author-Name: Adelson, Sadye F. Title: Food Consumption and Dietary Levels Under the Pilot Food Stamp Program: Detroit, Michigan, and Fayette County, Pennsylvania Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: The dual objectives of the Food Stamp Program as stated are to expand markets for agricultural products and to improve diets by increasing the ability of needy families to purchase more and better foods. Preliminary findings from surveys of food consumption by low-income families in 2 pilot areas in which studies were made indicate that the Program has made substantial progress in attaining both objectives. The market for food was expanded among needy families. Program participants consumed food that was greater in quantity and money value in the Program period than previously. During September and October 1961, urban recipients of food coupons in Detroit consumed foods with a money value 34 percent higher than during April and May, the preprogram period. Among rural recipients in Fayette County, Pa,, an increase of 9 percent was found. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 19 Number: 307158 Creation-Date: 1962-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307158 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307158/files/aer9.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307158 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Trotter, Warren K. Author-Name: Poats, Frederick J. Author-Name: Wolff, Ivan A. Title: New Industrial Crops: Some Economic Considerations Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Preliminary evaluations were made of the economic potentials of three types of new industrial crops: (1) annual pulp crops to provide raw material for the pulp and paper industry, (2) new oilseed crops that are sources of unique industrial oils, and (3) guar—a summer legume and source of natural gum. In these preliminary studies considerable emphasis was placed on the selection and adaptation of techniques for appraising economic factors involved in the development and commercialization of new crops. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 52 Number: 307159 Creation-Date: 1962-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307159 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307159/files/aer10.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307159 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Folkman, William S. Title: Progress of Rural and Urban Students Entering Iowa State University, Fall 1955 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: This report presents results of a study of the 2,200 students entering college for the first time who enrolled at Iowa State University in the fall of 1955. Data are taken from the university records of these students from the time of entrance through the fall quarter, 1959. Two-fifths of the students were from rural areas and males outnumbered females 3 to 1. Most of the students came to college directly from high school. However, 15 percent had delayed at least one year after high school graduation before entering college. Rural students rated slightly above their urban classmates on their high school grade-point average and on their percentile rank in high school graduating class. However, they fell considerably below the urban students in the college entrance examination. One-fifth of the students entered college with a deficiency in required high school credits or were allowed to enter only on probation because of inadequacies in their high school performance. The proportion of rural students entering with deficiencies was twice as high as the proportion of urban students. However, urban students had a slightly higher proportion entering on probation. Keywords: Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 33 Number: 307160 Creation-Date: 1962-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307160 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307160/files/aer12.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307160 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Chumney, W. T. Author-Name: Vermeer, James Title: Costs of Crop Production, by Size of Farm, Central Cotton-Tobacco Area of North Carolina Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Costs per pound of producing tobacco in 1956 were 16 percent lower on large farms in the central cotton-tobacco area of North Carolina than on small farms in the same area, and for cotton they were 20 percent lower on the large farms. Costs of producing corn were more than 40 percent lower and costs of producing soybeans, oats, and wheat were more than 50 percent lower on the large farms. Costs of producing cotton, tobacco, and corn were lowest on the large single-unit farms; costs of producing soybeans, oats, and wheat were lowest on large multiple-unit farms (farms with croppers). These conclusions are based on a study of 267 farms selected at random and surveyed in 1957. The cost estimates exclude charges for land and management, but they include charges for all labor at wage rates paid to hired labor. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 78 Number: 307161 Creation-Date: 1962-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307161 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307161/files/aer14.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307161 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Biedermann, Konrad Author-Name: Nack, Herman Author-Name: Neher, M. B. Author-Name: Wilhelmy, Odin, Jr. Title: A Technical-Economic Evaluation of Four Hide-Curing Methods Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: In-plant curing costs may mean the difference between profit and loss for many hide processing firms. Efficiency in hide curing also has an important impact on the ability of the American hide and leather industries to compete effectively in domestic and foreign markets. Accordingly, this study was conducted to provide hide processors with guidelines for lowering their marketing costs and increasing their processing efficiency. Data were obtained on the costs, labor, and equipment requirements from 21 hide firms of various sizes curing hides by the following methods: (1) pack salting, (2) agitated brine curing, (3) brine curing of fleshed hides by the pit method, and (4) agitated brine curing of fleshed hides. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 80 Number: 307162 Creation-Date: 1962-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307162 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307162/files/aer16.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307162 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Christensen, Raymond P. Author-Name: Aines, Ronald O. Title: Economic Effects of Acreage Control Programs in the 1950's Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Despite acreage-control programs designed to retard output expansion and shift cropland to conservation uses, in recent years agricultural production has continued to expand more than market outlets. During the 1950's, surplus production caused prices of farm products to decline about 20 percent more than prices paid by farmers. Carryover stocks of farm products went up greatly. If it had not been for acreage restrictions on crop production, however, price declines and stock accumulations would have been even greater. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 53 Number: 307163 Creation-Date: 1962-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307163 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307163/files/aer18.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307163 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mighell, Ronald L. Author-Name: Jones, Lawrence A. Title: Vertical Coordination in Agriculture Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: The succession of stages through which a commodity passes on its way through the production and marketing process is familiar. Vertical coordination includes all the ways in which these stages are directed and fitted together. Coordination of stages is both internal and external to the firm. Internal coordination is managed through administrative action within the firm. External coordination is accomplished through the action of prices, markets, and other forces that govern relationships between firms. As defined in this report, vertical integration is another name for internal coordination of stages. It does not include contract production which with open production constitute external coordination. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Marketing, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 97 Number: 307164 Creation-Date: 1963-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307164 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307164/files/aer19.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307164 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Sweeteners Used by Food Processing Industries in The United States: Their Competitive Position in The Canning Industry Abstract: Excerpt from report Summary: The canning industry (canned, bottled, and frozen foods, jams, jellies, pickles, and preserves) is one of the larger users of sugar and corn sweeteners in the United States. The industry produces a wide range of products, and the type and quantity of sweeteners used in them vary considerably. Since 1952 the use of sweeteners (sugar, dextrose, and corn sirup) in the canning industry has increased at an average rate of about 38,000 tons per year, a gain of about 50 percent. The most rapid increase was in the use of corn sirup more than 100 percent from 1952 through 1961. The use of dextrose fluctuated irregularly during this period and had only a slight upward trend. The use of sugar increased at an average rate of about 31,000 tons per year -- a gain of 49 percent. Canners indicate that relatively lower prices for corn sirup have been an important factor in the more rapid increase in its use instead of sugar. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 17 Number: 307165 Creation-Date: 1962-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307165 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307165/files/aer20.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307165 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starbird, Irving R. Author-Name: Vermeer, James Title: Crop Production Practices and Costs by Size of Farm, Delta Area, Mississippi, 1957-58 Abstract: Excerpt from report Summary: This report presents the results of a study of crop production practices, direct costs, and estimated net returns to unpaid labor, land, and management for five crops--cotton, soybeans, corn, oats, and wheat--by size of farm in the Delta area of Mississippi. The basic data were obtained by taking a survey of 163 farm operating units for the crop year 1957 and 160 operating units for the crop year 1958. Of these farm units 126 were in both surveys. Four sizes of farms were selected for analysis, as follows: (1) Less than 60 acres, (2) 60 to 399 acres, (3) 400 to 999 acres, and (4) 1,000 or more acres of cropland per farm. The hypothesis of this study was that lower direct costs per acre and per unit of output are obtained on large farms. The comparative analysis was restricted to direct costs in conjunction with estimates of gross returns per acre. In calculating per acre returns to land and unpaid labor and management, these estimates provided an indication of the relative returns from the various crop alternatives under existing management practices. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 74 Number: 307166 Creation-Date: 1962-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307166 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307166/files/aer21.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307166 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stocker, Frederick D. Title: Revenues and Expenditures of State and Local Governments in the Great Plains Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Expenditures and revenues of the Plains States conform in many respects to a common pattern; this pattern differs insignificant ways from that outside the Plains. There are contrasts also between the individual States in the region and between the Southern Plains (Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico) and the Northern Plains States (North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana). Generally speaking, State and local governments spend substantially more per capita in the Plains States than the U. S. average. The same was true of expenditure in relation to per capita personal income. The above average level of per capita public expenditure in the Great Plains requires above-average revenues. To a large extent this need is met by revenue from the Federal Government. Wyoming especially obtains a large proportion of general revenue from the Federal Government, but all 10 Plains States are above the U, S. average. In addition, the Plains States cover a larger share of their expenditures from charges and miscellaneous revenues than do most other States. All except Kansas and Montana were above the U. S. average in 1960 in the proportion of general revenue derived from these sources. Such revenues include fees and rentals on public lands and oil and mineral royalties. Keywords: Public Economics Length: 35 Number: 307167 Creation-Date: 1963-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307167 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307167/files/aer22.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307167 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Beale, Calvin L. Author-Name: Bogue, Donald J. Title: Recent Population Trends in The United States with Emphasis on Rural Areas Abstract: Excerpt from the report Highlights: The population of the United States has recently grown by 2.9 million persons per year. By September 1962 the total passed the 187 million mark, and unless a sharp downturn in birth rate occurs it will exceed 210 million by 1970. In rural United States, there have never before been so many areas declining in population at a time when most urban areas are growing rapidly. Never before have there been such disparities in the age distribution of farm and nonfarm populations as there are now, nor such differences in the directions in which the distributions are changing. Because of the heavy outmigration of young adults, in some rural areas births have declined to the point that they no longer exceed deaths. The revolution in agricultural life and technology that has fostered the loss of farm population has by no means been completed. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 48 Number: 307168 Creation-Date: 1963-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307168 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307168/files/aer23.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307168 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hole, Erling Author-Name: Vermeer, James Title: Wheat Growers' Machinery Costs, by Size of Farm in Central North Dakota Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: This report includes the results of a study of costs of owning and operating machinery on 3 sizes of spring wheat farms in central North Dakota in 1960. Most of the data were obtained by an enumerative survey of about 150 farms. Total costs are shown as costs per acre of use, including costs of implement, tractor, and driver. Total cost per acre for major tractor-drawn and self-propelled machinery averaged about 15 percent higher on farms in group I, those with 180 to 419 acres of cropland, than on farms in group III, those with 660 to 899 acres. Costs on farms in group II, those with 420 to 659 acres of cropland, averaged only slightly higher than on those in group III. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 25 Number: 307169 Creation-Date: 1963-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307169 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307169/files/aer24.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307169 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fienup, Darrell F. Author-Name: Motes, William C. Author-Name: Hiemstra, Stephen J. Author-Name: Laubis, Robert L. Title: Economic Effects of U.S. Grades for Lamb Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: For more than three decades the Department of Agriculture has offered a Federal grading service for lamb and mutton carcasses. During recent years about two-fifths of all the lamb and mutton produced in the United States has been federally graded. This service is provided on request and paid for by those who use it. Federal grades have an important positive effect on lamb marketing. They promote competition among buyers, among sellers, and between buyers and sellers. They facilitate trade and may lower total marketing costs. Both of these forces tend to prevent packers and retailers from, widening margins at the expense of their suppliers and consumers. Federal grading helps the pricing system direct production by rewarding the producers of desirable lambs relative to producers of lambs that are less desirable from the consumer's point of view. Although Federal grading does not affect all segments of the lamb industry equally, the net impact appears to be favorable from, the public interest and overall industry points of view. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 72 Number: 307182 Creation-Date: 1963-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307182 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307182/files/aer25.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307182 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Agriculture and Economic Growth: A Report Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The United States provides an outstanding example of what an efficient agriculture can do for the economic growth of a country. An examination of our economic history reveals seven contributions of major importance: The release of workers to industry; lowering of food costs relative to income; an expanding market for industrial goods; large earnings from exports of farm products; sustained output during economic depressions; the meeting of wartime demands for food and fiber; and assistance to the economic development of other countries. American agriculture has made a massive contribution in the past to the economic development of the United States. But what is to be its future role? Though its most dramatic contributions have been made, it will continue to play a significant role in domestic economic growth. It will continue to supply an abundance of food at prices that are low in relation to the prices of other goods and services; it will continue to be an important source of manpower for nonagricultural enterprises; and it will release land for other uses in the economy. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Development, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 36 Number: 307183 Creation-Date: 1963-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307183 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307183/files/aer28.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307183 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Havas, Nick Author-Name: Frye, Robert E. Title: Pilot Food Stamp Program: Its Effect on Retail Food Store Sales in Fayette County, Pa., and McDowell County, W. Va. Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: In Fayette County, Pa., and McDowell County, W. Va., two of the eight areas where the Food Stamp Program was initiated during mid-1961, dollar volume of sales in sample retail food stores averaged 7 percent higher during a 4-week period in April-May 1962 than in the same period a year earlier, prior to initiation of the Food Stamp Program. The largest percentage sales gains recorded by the sample stores were for produce, followed by meat and grocery items. Sales gains were recorded in all sizes of retail food stores but in varying degrees. Very small and fairly large stores gained 8 percent in dollar volume and medium stores 10 percent, while large and small stores gained smaller amounts. Proportion of total sales represented by food coupons in each size of store also varied. Neither gains in sales nor variations in coupon redemptions were of sufficient magnitude in favor of any one group to indicate that store size was a decisive factor in attracting coupon-using customers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 13 Number: 307184 Creation-Date: 1963-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307184 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307184/files/aer29.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307184 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Sweeteners Used by the Dairy Industry: Their Competitive Position in the United States Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Manufacturers of sweetened dairy products used about 4.7 percent of the total quantity of sugar, corn sirup, and dextrose delivered to consumers in the United States in 1961. Smaller quantities of noncaloric sweeteners (principally saccharin and sucaryl) and sorbitol were used in producing various dietetic dairy products. The principal dairy products for which sweeteners are important are ice cream, other frozen desserts, and sweetened condensed milk. The production of frozen desserts, including ice cream, has been increasing in the United States since 1952, but the output of sweetened condensed milk has declined. The manufacture of ice cream tends to be concentrated near centers of population because of the expense of transporting it long distances. Plants producing sweetened condensed milk are mostly situated in areas of heavy milk production, since it is less expensive to transport the manufactured product than fresh milk. From 1952 to 1961, the use of sweeteners (sugar, dextrose, and corn sirup) in dairy products has increased at an average rate of about 18,000 tons, or 4.7 percent a year. The use of corn sirup in sweetened dairy products increased from 1952 through 1961 at an average rate of about 5,000 tons, 12.5 percent per year, as compared with 14,000 tons or 4.0 percent, for sugar. The use of dextrose declined at an average rate of about 6.7 percent a year. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization Length: 21 Number: 307185 Creation-Date: 1963-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307185 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307185/files/aer30.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307185 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Sweeteners Used by the Beverage Industry: Their Competitive Position in the United States Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The beverage industry (soft drinks, malt, malt liquors, distilled liquors, flavorings) used 13.5 percent of all the sugar consumed in the United States and one-fourth of that delivered to industrial users in the United States in 1961. This was more than was delivered to any other industry. Beverage producers also used relatively small amounts of dextrose and corn sirup and increasing amounts of noncaloric sweeteners. Manufacturers of soft drinks are the largest users of sugar, followed by the producers of flavorings. However, soft drink manufacturers are the largest customers of the flavoring industry so that much of the sugar delivered to the flavoring industry reaches consumers in the form of a soft drink. Most of the corn sirup and dextrose delivered to the beverage industry is used as part of the fermentation material in the production of beer. The consumption of sugar by the beverage industry has been increasing since 1952 at a rate of about 49,000 tons per year. Deliveries of corn, sirup have increased about 3,200 tons per year, while those for dextrose declined from 1952 to 1959 and then increased to about the 1952 level. The percentage rate of increase in the use of corn sirup was more than twice that for sugar, but, the total quantity delivered in 1961 was less than 4 percent of the quantity of sugar delivered. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization Length: 18 Number: 307186 Creation-Date: 1963-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307186 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307186/files/aer31.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307186 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Sweeteners Used by the Baking Industry: Their Competitive Position in the United States Abstract: Excerpts from report Summary: The baking industry (bakery, cereal, and allied products) is one of the major users of sweeteners in the United States, taking more than one-half the dextrose, 12 percent of the sugar, and 10 percent of the corn sirup delivered to consumers in the United States in 1961. Plants producing bread and related products are located in all sections of the country, more or less in proportion to population, because these products are perishable and expensive to distribute. Biscuits and crackers are produced in a much smaller number of plants of larger size. These products are less perishable than bread and can be shipped comparatively long distances, thus enabling manufacturers to take advantage of the efficiency of larger plants. The baking industry increased its use of sweeteners at an annual average rate of about 48,000 tons, of which nearly 40,000 tons were sugar, 4,000 tons dextrose, and 4,000 tons corn sirup. The percentage rate of increase, based on average tonnages for 1952-61, was highest, 7.1 percent, for corn sirup, and the smallest, 2.1 percent, for dextrose. The rate for sugar was 4.4 percent. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization Length: 19 Number: 307187 Creation-Date: 1963-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307187 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307187/files/aer32.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307187 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Poli, Adon Title: Long-Term Production Prospects for Western Agriculture Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Crop production in the West has been following the national trend by increasing steadily over the years. The same major productive factors which have stimulated national agricultural output have also stimulated that in the West, but irrigation has played a more significant role in the West. Index numbers of total crop production, crop production per acre, and cropland harvested in the West since 1940 and projected to 1975 show (1) that substantial increases in total crop production have occurred during the past 20 years and that further increases can be expected, (2) that expansion of total cropland acreage will not be as important a factor in increasing future production as it has been in the past, (3) that increased yields per acre by increased irrigation and improvement in other productive factors have been and will continue to be dominant in stimulating agricultural output. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 43 Number: 307188 Creation-Date: 1963-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307188 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307188/files/aer33.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307188 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pasour, E. C., Jr. Author-Name: Oldenstadt, D. L. Title: Farm Prices of Apples for Canning and Freezing, United States, 1951-61 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: "Canning and freezing" apples are a significant source of income to many apple producers. Historically, farm prices of apples going into these outlets have fluctuated widely from year to year. In recent years, however, only a few empirical studies have been made to explain these price variations. This publication attempts to isolate and measure the major factors associated with changes in farm prices of canning and freezing apples. Information of this nature should aid producers and processors in making marketing decisions. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 23 Number: 307189 Creation-Date: 1963-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307189 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307189/files/aer35.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307189 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Sweeteners Used by the Confectionery Industry: Their Competitive Position in the United States Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The confectionery industry--candy, candied fruits and other confectionery products, chewing gum, chocolate and cocoa products--uses a larger quantity of corn sirup, more than one-third of the total consumption, than any other food industry in the United States. It also uses nearly one-tenth of the sugar and more than one-twentieth of the dextrose consumed in the United States. The total quantity of sugar, corn sirup, and dextrose delivered to confectionery industry increased during the period 1952-61 at an average rate of about 25,000 tons a year, of which 20,000 tons were sugar, 5,000 corn sirup, and 360 dextrose. The increase in the use of these products was only slightly faster than the growth of population in the United States. Per capita use increased only about 6 percent from 1952 to 1961. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization Length: 21 Number: 307190 Creation-Date: 1963-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307190 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307190/files/aer37.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307190 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vermeer, James Title: An Economic Appraisal of the 1961 Feed Grain Program Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Following a 9-year buildup in feed grain stocks, the 1961 Feed Grain Program was enacted by Congress to enable farmers to maintain their incomes while reducing production of corn and grain sorghums. The program offered farmers incentive payments to divert at least 20 percent of their corn and grain sorghum acreage to conservation uses. It also offered them support prices on their normal yield on the reduced acreage at a national average price of $1.20 a bushel for corn and $1.93 a hundredweight for grain sorghum. About 1,200 farmers in 8 areas were selected for study. The sample in each area included about 75 participants in the 1961 Feed Grain Program and 75 nonparticipants selected at random from the records in the county offices of Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service. In personal interviews with these farmers, information was obtained on size of farms, acreages of cropland and land in corn and grain sorghum, productivity of the land, personal characteristics of the operators and their families, and other factors that were presumed to have some bearing on participation in the program. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 43 Number: 307191 Creation-Date: 1963-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307191 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307191/files/aer38.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307191 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cowhig, James D. Title: Age-Grade School Progress of Farm and Nonfarm Youth: 1960 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Highlights: Results of the 1950 and 1960 Censuses are used to compare the school progress of farm and nonfarm children in 1960 and to describe the changes that occurred over the decade. The basis of comparison is the enrollment of children of specific ages in specific grades. For children at each single age between 8 and 17, there is a two-grade span which includes the grades in which most children of a given age are enrolled. These two grades are referred to as the ones “expected" for a given age. Children enrolled in grades below those expected for their age are said to be “retarded" scholastically; those in grades above the expected are said to be "accelerated" scholastically. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 25 Number: 307192 Creation-Date: 1963-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307192 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307192/files/aer40.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307192 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Author-Name: Powell, Jules V. Title: Economic Aspects of Pecan Production and Marketing: Arkansas, Florida, South Carolina, Mississippi, New Mexico, Georgia Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Pecans are an important source of income to growers throughout the Southern tier of States from North Carolina to New Mexico. The total crop of pecans consists of nuts from "both seedling and improved pecan trees. The size of the crop varies widely from year to year. Quality also varies among production areas in any given year and from year to year. Total production of pecans has trended upward and improved varieties are an increasing share of the total crop. This report presents production and marketing data obtained from pecan growers in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, New Mexico, and South Carolina. Data were obtained from 576 pecan growers who owned 370,000 pecan trees, or 13 percent of the trees listed in the 1959 Census of Agriculture for the 6 States. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Marketing Length: 47 Number: 307193 Creation-Date: 1963-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307193 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307193/files/aer41.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307193 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cowhig, James D. Title: School Dropout Rates Among Farm and Nonfarm Youth: 1950 and 1960 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Information from the 1950 and 1960 Censuses of Population is used to derive estimates of the number and proportion of farm and nonfarm youths who dropped out of school before finishing high school. The analysis is focused on dropout rates for males, on differences between major regions, and on comparisons of white-nonwhite differences within the farm and nonfarm school-age populations. Data also are presented which may be used to derive dropout rates for females and to make detailed comparisons between the South and the rest of the United States. The estimated total number of school dropouts includes youths who had completed fewer than 12 years of school and were not enrolled in school--referred to as actual dropouts--plus the number of youths enrolled in grades (other than the 12th grade) two or more grades below the level of most youths of the same age--referred to as probable dropouts. Because 16 is the age when most State provisions for compulsory school attendance no longer apply, detailed analysis is limited to youths 16-24 years of age. To provide an overall description of the number of actual school dropouts in 1950 and 1960, estimates are made of the number of actual dropouts 14-24 years of age. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 34 Number: 307194 Creation-Date: 1963-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307194 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307194/files/aer42.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307194 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: The Structure of Wholesale Produce Markets Abstract: Excerpt from the report Highlights: Many changes have taken place in the produce marketing system in the past quarter century. Direct buying by chains and other retail organizations has increased markedly. Many wholesalers have gone out of business, but many others have entered the field. Consumer-unit packaging has become an important element in wholesale and retail markets. To understand better the present organization of wholesale produce markets, as well as the changes which have taken place since the 1930's, the Economic Research Service studied 52 wholesale markets of all sizes and types throughout the country. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 136 Number: 307195 Creation-Date: 1964-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307195 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307195/files/aer45.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307195 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Strohbehn, Roger W. Title: Ownership of Rural Land in the Southeast Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Recent changes in agricultural production, the introduction of industries into rural areas, and movement of nonfarm families to rural residences have created a need to reexamine the pattern of rural landownership in the Southeast. In the fall of 1960, 2,643 landowners, chosen by a probability area sample in the Southeast, were interviewed. Owners were classified as individuals, corporations, or public agencies. Such items as characteristics of owners, acreages of various kinds of land owned, method of land acquisition, ownership rights, land use, and plans for land transfer were tabulated. Keywords: Land Economics/Use Length: 48 Number: 307196 Creation-Date: 1963-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307196 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307196/files/aer46.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307196 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hiemstra, Stephen J. Title: Rising Depreciation of Assets in Agricultural Marketing Firms: Some Causes and Implications Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Depreciation of assets -- one of the costs of doing business -- rose steadily during 1949-59 and likely will continue to rise. Corporate agricultural marketing firms -- those handling food and kindred products and textile-mill products, food retailers, beverage manufacturers, and tobacco manufacturers -- more than doubled their dollar charges for depreciating assets in the 10 years. Increases were typical of all corporations in the U. S. economy. Since World War II, dollars of depreciation have increased more rapidly than gains in total receipts but profits after taxes have declined. The total of the two (depreciation and after-tax profits) -- sometimes called total cash flow – declined in the late 1940’s and reached a low in the early 1950's. Since then total cash flow has increased for the agricultural industries. Keywords: Agribusiness, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 47 Number: 307197 Creation-Date: 1963-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307197 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307197/files/aer47.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307197 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Sweeteners Used by Food Processing Industries: Their Competitive Position in the United States Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Industrial food processors are the largest users of sweeteners in the United States. The principal sweeteners used are sugar, corn sirup, dextrose, and the noncaloric sweeteners, saccharin and sucaryl. In addition, food processors are important users of such other sweeteners as honey, maple sirup, and edible molasses. Sugar is still the primary sweetener used by food processors, but its position in the manufacture of a number of products, such as canned fruits, ice cream and other frozen desserts, and soft drinks, has been slowly weakening and that of other sweeteners, particularly corn sirup and noncaloric sweeteners, improving. The rising price of sugar, relative to other sweeteners, is an important factor inducing industrial food processors to substitute other sweeteners for sugar. Other factors working in the same direction include: (1) The introduction of new noncaloric sweeteners following World War II, and (2) improvements in the quality of corn sirup and an increase in the variety of types available to purchasers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 26 Number: 307198 Creation-Date: 1964-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307198 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307198/files/aer48.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307198 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nikolitch, Radoje Title: Our 100,000 Biggest Farms: Their Relative Position in American Agriculture Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: An increasing proportion of total sales of farm products is coming from farms with $40,000 or more of marketings. For example, in 1959 the proportion was 33 percent, compared with 16 percent in 1939. This increase came mainly from the expanding number of farms in the group rather than from the increasing value of sales per farm. From 1939 to 1959, the increase in number of farms with sales of $40,000 to $99,999 was 242 percent while the increase in output per farm was only 8 percent. The number of farms with sales of $100,000 or more increased 300 percent, compared with a 10-percent increase in output per farm. Keywords: Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 31 Number: 307199 Creation-Date: 1964-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307199 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307199/files/aer49.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307199 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wesson, William T. Title: Taxes Paid by Firms Marketing Farm Food Products Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: Federal income and business taxes represent a significant part of the costs of marketing domestic farm food products. In 1960, such taxes accounted for about 5 percent of the food marketing bill. Taxes also affect business decisions of marketing firms and thus influence the structure of commodity markets. The U. S. Department of Agriculture initiated this study to answer questions concerning the nature and magnitude of taxes paid by firms engaged in food marketing and the relationship of taxes to size of marketing firms. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 55 Number: 307200 Creation-Date: 1964-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307200 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307200/files/aer50.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307200 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Moore, E. J. Author-Name: Baum, E. L. Author-Name: Glasgow, R. B. Title: Economic Factors Influencing Educational Attainments and Aspirations of Farm Youth Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 50 Number: 307201 Creation-Date: 1964-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307201 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307201/files/aer51.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307201 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pavlick, Anthony L. Author-Name: Coltrane, Robert I. Title: Quality of Rural and Urban Housing in the Appalachian Region Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Housing in the Appalachian Region is generally inferior to housing in the surrounding area and is below the U. S. average, according to criteria on which this report is based. Housing condition (sound, deteriorating, and dilapidated) and plumbing facilities were used in comparisons. Evaluations were based only on analyses of these criteria. Part of the general disparity in Appalachian housing results from the Region's relatively high percentage of rural housing, in comparisons with the U. S. average. However, in each housing category analyzed—urban, rural nonfarm, and farm— Appalachian housing is below the average for the United States. Housing quality is generally highest in the northern part of the Region. It declines toward the center, then improves further south. An exception to this improvement in the southern part is housing in the Alabama segment of the Region, particularly rural housing. Eastern segments of the Appalachian area tend to have higher quality housing than western segments. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 31 Number: 307202 Creation-Date: 1964-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307202 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307202/files/aer52.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307202 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Speel, H. C. Author-Name: Poats, F. J. Title: Economic Potential of Soaps, Detergents, and Surfactants Made from Fats and Oils Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: Surfactants (surface-active agents) are marketed in many forms and in many products, but mainly as soaps and synthetic detergents. Significant quantities of animal fats and vegetable oils go into the manufacture of both soaps and detergents. About 456,000 tons (worth nearly $39 million) were used in soapmaking during 1961, and another 169,000 tons went into various detergents and other surface-active agents. Pollution of water supplies by detergents that do not decompose rapidly in sewage disposal systems has caused a search for detergents that will decompose readily. There is interest in what the market position of fats and oils used in surfactants could be when new materials to answer this pollution problem are marketed. This report presents results of a study of the kinds of surfactants being marketed, the role of fats and oils in their production, and the likely role of fats and oils in the products of the future. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 22 Number: 307203 Creation-Date: 1964-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307203 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307203/files/aer53.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307203 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thompson, John W. Title: A Guide to Lower Costs and Greater Efficiency in Curing Cattle Hides Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: In-plant curing costs may mean the difference between profit and loss for many hide-processing firms. Efficiency in hide curing also has an important impact on the ability of the American hide and leather industries to compete effectively in domestic and foreign markets. Accordingly, this study was conducted to provide hide processors with guidelines for attaining low curing costs. Two model plants are presented to show the appropriate capital investments, operating costs, and labor requirements that characterize well managed hide-curing establishments. The first model is a conventional pack-salt curing operation with a capacity for curing 500 hides daily. The second model is an agitated brine process followed by fleshing with a capacity for processing 1,000 hides a day. Results of this study indicate that hides can be cured by the pack-salt method for 83 cents per hide or $1.39 per hundredweight on a cured basis. Total curing costs for this method can be broken down as follows: Taxes, interest, and depreciation 14 percent; labor 46 percent; salt 20 percent; and all other costs 20 percent. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 20 Number: 307204 Creation-Date: 1964-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307204 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307204/files/aer54.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307204 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Havas, Nick Title: Pilot Food Stamp Program: Impact on Retail Food Store Sales in Avoyelles Parish, La. Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Sales of retail food stores, adjusted for seasonal influence, rose 7 percent during a 4-week period in June-July 1963 compared with a 4-week period in January-February of the same year. The increase in sales was attributed to the introduction of the Food Stamp Program in the area. Sales, unadjusted for seasonal influence, rose about 14 percent during the 4 weeks. Dollar volume of food coupons redeemed in sample stores during the Program period totaled nearly $45,000, or 9 percent of sales volume. Of the three major food groups handled by retailers, meat sales rose most--increasing 25 percent. Grocery sales rose 12 percent. Produce sales dropped nearly 10 percent, mostly because fresh produce was available from, sources other than retail food stores. Sales by individual food groups were not adjusted for seasonality. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 11 Number: 307205 Creation-Date: 1964-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307205 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307205/files/aer55.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307205 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Moore, Elmer J. Title: Rural Recreation Enterprises in New England: Investments, Returns and Problems Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Recreation enterprises in New England need relatively large capital outlays to provide the kind, quality, and quantity of services most in demand. Operators require a high level of management skill to be successful. These are the major findings of this study of selected rural recreation enterprises in New England. In September 1962, data for calendar year 1961 were obtained from 32 rural recreation enterprise operators in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, and New Hampshire. The study was designed to obtain estimates of investments, costs, and returns for various types of activities, and to determine managerial and operational problems. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Financial Economics, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 31 Number: 307206 Creation-Date: 1964-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307206 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307206/files/aer56.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307206 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Food Supplies Available by Counties in Case of a National Emergency: A Civil Defense Study Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: The Office of Civil Defense is assigned the responsibility for development of civil defense preparedness measures by Executive Order 10952. One important concern of civil defense is the availability of food supplies and the number of days during which a given population can be fed from stocks on hand in emergency situations. With an abundance of food on a national basis, the problem centers on the geographic distribution of the available supply in relation to population. Executive Order 10998 directs the U. S. Department of Agriculture to assess periodically food resources available from all sources in order to estimate availability under an emergency situation. Executive Order 10958 gives the Department of Agriculture responsibility for any food stockpiling. This report was prepared to meet the needs of the Office of Civil Defense and the Department of Agriculture and others concerned with civil defense. The data by counties. States, and regions are not precise. They are intended to show where available food supplies might be large or small in a national emergency. Even if different assumptions were made regarding the ability to transport food and minimum civilian food requirements in an emergency, the picture would remain relatively the same. Local food surpluses and deficits, in this case, might be greater or less than those shown here. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Security and Poverty Length: 212 Number: 307207 Creation-Date: 1964-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307207 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307207/files/aer57.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307207 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Beckman, Jayson Author-Name: Ivanic, Maros Author-Name: Jelliffe, Jeremy L. Author-Name: Baquedano, Felix G. Author-Name: Scott, Sara G. Title: Economic and Food Security Impacts of Agricultural Input Reduction Under the European Union Green Deal’s Farm to Fork and Biodiversity Strategies Abstract: The European Commission (EC) unveiled its Farm to Fork and Biodiversity Strategies that would impose restrictions on European Union (EU) agriculture through targeted reductions in the use of land, fertilizers, antimicrobials, and pesticides. The proposal also pledges to use EC trade policies and other international efforts to support this vision of sustainable agri-food systems, suggesting intentions to expand the reach of the policy beyond the EU. To examine the economic implications of the proposal, we performed a range of policy simulations on several of the proposed targets using three progressively broader adoption scenarios of the EC’s initiative. Under all these scenarios, we found that the proposed input reductions affect EU farmers by reducing their agricultural production by 7 to 12 percent and diminishing their competitiveness in both domestic and export markets. Moreover, we found that adoption of these strategies would have impacts that stretch beyond the EU, driving up worldwide food prices by 9 (EU only adoption) to 89 percent (global adoption), negatively affecting consumer budgets, and ultimately reducing worldwide societal welfare by $96 billion to $1.1 trillion, depending on how widely other countries adopt the strategies. We estimate that the higher food prices under these scenarios would increase the number of food-insecure people in the world’s most vulnerable regions by 22 million (EU only adoption) to 185 million (global adoption). Keywords: Food Security and Poverty Length: 59 Number: 307277 Creation-Date: 2020-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307277 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307277/files/Economic%20and%20Food%20Security%20Impacts%20of%20Agricultural%20Input%20Reduction%20Under%20the%20European%20Union%20Green%20Deal%E2%80%99s%20Farm%20to%20Fork%20and%20Biodiversity%20Strategies.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307277 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davis, Jeanne M. Title: New England Farm Vacation Businesses: Characteristics and Owners' Experiences Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Farm vacation businesses provide needed additional income for numerous New England families. City people began visiting farms in the region decades ago. New England's recreation attractions and widespread advertising give farm vacation facilities in this region an advantage over those in other regions. Advantages of a farm vacation business include: Earning additional cash income, meeting interesting people, learning about other places, helping city people learn about farm life, and being appreciated for skills the family and neighbors often take for granted. Some disadvantages inherent in farm vacation businesses, as in many recreation enterprises, include: A short summer season, adverse weather and other conditions over which operators have no control, and occasional difficulties with uncooperative guests. Additional disadvantages of farm vacation businesses are the lack of privacy and the fact that the income may be low. Keywords: Agribusiness, Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 20 Number: 307282 Creation-Date: 1964-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307282 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307282/files/aer60.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307282 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Carley, D. H. Author-Name: Cryer, T. L. Title: Flexibility of Operation in Dairy Manufacturing Plants: Changes 1944 to 1961 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The production of manufactured dairy products is becoming concentrated in fewer but more diversified plants. From 1944 to 1961, plant numbers decreased from 9,739 to 6,134 but the average number of products manufactured per plant increased from 1.5 to 2.0. In 1961, number of products produced per plant ranged from a low of 1.9 in the New England to a high of 2.5 in the Mountain Region. Only one product was made in 44 percent of the plants in 1961, compared with 72 percent of the plants in 1944. An additional 6 percent of the plants produced only minor quantities of other products in 1961, and another 3 percent were joint-product (butter-powder) operations only. In 1961, 47 percent of the plants had a certain degree of diversification in production compared to only 10 percent of the plants in 1944. About 39 percent of the plants were partially diversified in 1961 compared with 9 percent in 1944. In 1961, 8 percent (515 plants) were fully diversified compared with 1 percent (100 plants) in 1944. The East North Central Region led in the number of fully diversified plants in 1961, with the West North Central and Middle Atlantic next in order. Keywords: Agribusiness, Industrial Organization Length: 48 Number: 307283 Creation-Date: 1964-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307283 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307283/files/aer61.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307283 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bird, Alan R. Title: Poverty in Rural Areas of the United States Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Because of the complex nature of poverty in rural areas and its prevalence among a large proportion of the population, those concerned with anti-poverty programs must take many factors into consideration. Two general types of programs seem to be needed. These are programs to raise the economic status of individual families and those to develop, consolidate, or otherwise upgrade public services such as schools,, hospitals, roads, and water supplies. Programs to assist families should complement one another to a considerable extent. These programs may be of three types: (1) programs to provide education, training, and employment opportunities mainly for persons under 45 years of age; (2) programs to develop local employment opportunities for the relatively unskilled, particularly for family heads 45 years of age or older; and (3) welfare programs, including housing, geared primarily to the needs of older people, invalids, and perhaps families headed by women. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty Length: 49 Number: 307284 Creation-Date: 1964-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307284 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307284/files/aer63.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307284 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cowhig, James D. Title: Characteristics of School Dropouts and High School Graduates, Farm and Nonfarm, 1960 Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 36 Number: 307285 Creation-Date: 1964-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307285 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307285/files/aer65.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307285 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Beale, Calvin L. Author-Name: Hudson, John C. Author-Name: Banks, Vera J. Title: Characteristics of the U.S. Population by Farm and Nonfarm Origin Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 28 Number: 307286 Creation-Date: 1964-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307286 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307286/files/aer66.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307286 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Nature of Competition in Fluid Milk Markets: Market Organization and Concentration Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: The typical city milk market today has two important characteristics: (1) A few firms make most of the sales, and (2) small milk dealers are going out of business. These characteristics have been apt descriptions for over 50 years. Studies of city markets 50 years ago showed that 2 to 6 firms controlled 40 to 60 percent of the market, as they frequently do today. The number of handlers in fluid milk markets has been declining since early in the 19th century because of technological and economic changes. Between 1950 and 1962, the number of handlers decreased nearly half in the 71 markets studied, declining at a faster rate in the smaller markets than in the largest ones. Concentration--the share of the market held by the 4 largest firms--increased fairly rapidly in smaller markets in this period, while it declined slightly in the largest markets. Over a 25- to 30-year period, between the 1930’s and 1962, concentration increased fairly sharply in the smallest markets, while it declined in the majority of the larger ones. Keywords: Agribusiness, Industrial Organization Length: 81 Number: 307287 Creation-Date: 1965-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307287 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307287/files/aer67.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307287 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bird, Ronald Author-Name: Inman, Buis T. Title: Income Opportunities for Rural Families from Outdoor Recreation Enterprises Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Demand for outdoor recreation is expanding rapidly. Much of this demand can be satisfied by the establishment of recreational facilities on private land. This report summarizes data obtained from studies on recreational enterprises in 6 areas of the United States (Arkansas, Missouri, New England, Ohio, Oregon, and South Carolina), which were made to determine their financial success and to identify the characteristics of users. Demand is classified by length of stay: (1) 1 day, (2) weekend, and, (3) weekly or monthly. The length of stay and the composition of the visiting party govern the services desired. The demand for different kinds of recreation may change rapidly and make many facilities obsolete in a short time. However, demand for a particular type of recreation often does not develop until facilities and services are provided and advertised. Thus, developers must anticipate demand when they develop the facility. Also, the individual operator must attract visitors to use his facilities. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Financial Economics, Land Economics/Use Length: 35 Number: 307288 Creation-Date: 1965-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307288 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307288/files/aer68.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307288 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coltrane, R. I. Author-Name: Baum, E. L. Title: An Economic Survey of the Appalachian Region, With Special Reference to Agriculture Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: In 1960, Appalachia's population was over 50 percent rural but only 9 percent farm. The only State areas in the Region where more than 50 percent of the population lived in urban areas were in Pennsylvania and Alabama. Agricultural development has not occurred on a wide scale in Appalachia, mainly because of the critical lack of land adapted to mechanized farming. Only 31 percent of the non-Federal and urban land in Appalachia is suitable for normal cultivation of crops, and an additional 14 percent is suitable for only occasional cultivation. Corresponding U. S. figures are 44 and 12 percent. The lack of adequate agricultural land severely limits the production of crops requiring extensive cultivation. Much of the cultivatable land is in small isolated tracts or on rough terrain which cannot be farmed efficiently with modem machinery. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Land Economics/Use Length: 89 Number: 307289 Creation-Date: 1965-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307289 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307289/files/aer69.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307289 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E., Jr. Title: Market News Dissemination in the Southwest: How the Feed-Grain and Livestock Industries Obtain and Evaluate Market Information Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Farmers and tradesmen in the Southwest like the present system of Federal-State market news reporting, according to the study on which this report is based. Two hundred and one feed-grain and livestock producers and 205 feed-grain and livestock tradesmen were interviewed concerning (1) the information media they use; (2) their use of market information; (3) their evaluation of present information; and (4) projected needs for the future. These respondents were located throughout Arizona, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. The most commonly reported information channel was face-to-face conversation with other farmers or tradesmen. Unfortunately, respondents were unable to report the information media used by their face-to-face informants. Also, only 31 percent of all producers were aware of the extent to which TV, radio, and trade newspapers and magazines rely upon Federal-State market and situation reports as sources for their information. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 23 Number: 307290 Creation-Date: 1965-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307290 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307290/files/aer71.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307290 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reese, Robert B. Title: Establishing Central School Lunch Kitchens in Urban Areas: Problems and Costs Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: The rapid and continuing expansion of the National School Lunch Program has focused the attention of the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry and the U. S. Department of Agriculture on a problem concerning expansion: How to provide nutritionally adequate noonday lunches under the Program to children in older urban schools where installation of kitchen facilities is not feasible. More than 1.5 million children in metropolitan public schools and almost as many in private schools do not have access to school lunches. Many of these children are from older, congested, low-income neighborhoods where nutritional benefits from expansion of the Program might be greatest. A feasible approach to this problem involves central preparation and distribution of food to individual schools. Therefore, an intensive study was initiated of food service operations in eight diverse school systems utilizing central kitchens. Four forms of Type A lunches meeting Program nutritional requirements were selected for study--plate lunches, tray pack, soup and sandwich, and packaged lunches. This report summarizes information from these operating lunch programs. It was developed to help lunch program supervisors and others evaluate the central kitchen concept in expanding the lunch program to older schools in low-income neighborhoods. It should aid preliminary planning prior to designs for specific individual operations. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 65 Number: 307291 Creation-Date: 1965-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307291 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307291/files/aer72.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307291 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fuller, Theodore E. Author-Name: Baum, E. L. Title: Employment, Unemployment, and Low Incomes in Appalachia Abstract: Excerpt from the report Highlights: Appalachia has a disproportionate share of the Nation's unemployed workers and low-income families. However, the economy of the region is neither entirely nor uniformly "depressed". Considerable variation exists among subareas of the region in the number and percent of persons unemployed, and of families with incomes below $3,000. The variation reflects in part recent differential growth rates among subareas in employment and population. Some local economies have expanded rapidly, some slowly, and others have contracted precipitously. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 54 Number: 307292 Creation-Date: 1965-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307292 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307292/files/aer73.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307292 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nikolitch, Radoje Title: The Expanding and the Contracting Sectors of American Agriculture Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: This report is based mainly on data obtained from the Census of Agriculture for the period 1939-59. Census data were adjusted, however, in three main respects. First, value of sales (marketings) for all years considered were measured in terms of 1959 prices received by farmers. Second, data on number of farms, value of sales, and acreage for all years were (1) adapted to the 1959 census definition of a farm, (2) corrected for census undercounting, and (3) adjusted to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's aggregate estimates. Finally, farms were grouped by value of sales for various years before 1959, according to the interval limits of the value-of-sales grouping of farms in the 1959 Census of Agriculture. Keywords: Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 40 Number: 307293 Creation-Date: 1965-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307293 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307293/files/aer74.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307293 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jones, Lawrence A. Author-Name: Larson, Donald K. Title: Economic Impact of Federal Crop Insurance in Selected Areas of Virginia and Montana Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: This report records the results of research undertaken by the Economic Research Service (ERS) for the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC). (Both are agencies in the Department of Agriculture. ) The purpose was to determine the economic impact of Federal crop insurance on farmers and others. The study is a pilot exploration into an area where procedures so far are not well developed. For this reason, non-statistical analysis has been relied upon heavily. It is hoped that the findings, both methodological and substantive, will provide a useful background for subsequent studies of this nature. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 40 Number: 307294 Creation-Date: 1965-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307294 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307294/files/aer75.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307294 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stallings, Dale G. Title: Long-Run Projections of Food Processing and Marketing in the West Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The rapid growth of population, income, and agricultural production in the Western Region raises questions about future changes in the production, processing, and marketing of farm food products in the Region. Shifts in consumption from fresh fruits and vegetables and relatively unprocessed foods to processed foods and from starchy foods to meat products and processed fruits and vegetables affect to some extent, the quantities of these foods produced within the Region. Such shifts also affect the quantities of food shipped into and out of the Region and the kinds of processing and distribution services required. Based on the projections of this study, it is likely that the Western Region will tend to specialize more in the production, processing, and marketing of fresh and processed fruits, vegetables, nuts, and beet sugar, and to ship in more dairy products, meat, poultry, and flour products. Production as a percentage of consumption within the Western Region will increase only slightly for the former group of commodities and either decline slowly or remain about the same for the latter commodities. However, small changes in the ratio of production to consumption in the Region result in large changes in the quantities shipped in or out, because of the growth and size of the market in the Western Region. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Labor and Human Capital, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 50 Number: 307295 Creation-Date: 1965-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307295 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307295/files/aer78.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307295 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cowhig, James D. Title: Urban and Rural Levels of Living, 1960 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Highlights: Information on five indicators of level of living (availability of automobile, telephone, hot and cold water piped inside the house, a house in sound condition, and a person-per-room ratio) is used to compare the levels of living of the urban and rural populations in 1960. This report is based on a special analysis of the 1-in-1,000-sample tabulations from the 1960 Census of Population and Housing and presents heretofore unavailable comparisons of urban and rural levels of living. Attention is focused on households headed by a male employed in the civilian labor force and on the relationships between indicators of level of living and factors such as age and color of the household head, family income, occupation of the head, and region of residence. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics Length: 21 Number: 307296 Creation-Date: 1965-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307296 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307296/files/aer79.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307296 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shaw, Lawrence H. Author-Name: Durost, Donald D. Title: The Effect of Weather and Technology on Corn Yields in the Corn Belt, 1929-62 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Recent increases in agricultural output have prompted agricultural researchers to investigate the roles of weather and technology in crop yields. This study assesses the relative effect of each on corn yields in the Corn Belt between 1929 and 1962. Weather indexes were constructed for all States of the Corn Belt and the Corn Belt as a whole. These measures were constructed from corn variety test data, and were used to adjust yield and output series for the influence of weather by a simple deflation process. State indexes were developed by aggregating weather indexes for individual locations. When the weather index is used to deflate the effect of weather on yields, the actual yield series may be adjusted to show the technological yield trend without the effects of weather. Variation in the adjusted yield series is an estimate of the effect of changes in technology. The weather index was also used to facilitate the analysis of the distribution of weather effects and the effect that improved technology has had in reducing fluctuations due to weather. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 42 Number: 307297 Creation-Date: 1965-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307297 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307297/files/aer80.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307297 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harp, Harry H. Author-Name: Miller, Marshall E. Title: Convenience Foods: The Relationship Between Sales Volume and Factors Influencing Demand Abstract: Report Summary: The estimating equation developed from available data explained 87 percent of variation in the log of sales of 110 convenience foods. Taking into account those factors found to be significantly associated with sales should be a positive aid in guiding the development and sales promotion of new products and in reducing the high rate of product failure. The factors found to be significantly related to sales of convenience foods were: (1) Cost per serving, (2) degree of competition from similar products, (3) importance of food group in the consumer purchase pattern, (4) availability of the product, (5) success of similar convenience foods, and (6) special variables for specialty and ready-to-serve products. Within the framework of the model, these relationships have less than 1 percent probability of being caused by chance. No doubt, quality and promotion also are important in explaining variation in sales volume of convenience foods. Because of lack of data, these factors were not used in the analysis. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 24 Number: 307298 Creation-Date: 1965-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307298 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307298/files/aer81.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307298 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hutton, Robert F. Title: A Simulation Technique for Making Management Decisions in Dairy Farming: Narrative, Flow Chart, and Computer Code Description Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: This report describes a simulation model of a dairy herd. The description includes flow chart and computer source language representations of the model, together with explanatory text. Although the model is capable of producing information on many aspects of the dairy farm business, the immediate focus is on the selection of a policy for making herd replacements. The operation of the model requires information describing the situation to be analyzed. Other values are "built into" the model. Running the simulation relates the descriptive information and factual concepts in a logical pattern. The output consists of information on the prospective performance of the dairy herd in the situation specified. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 145 Number: 307299 Creation-Date: 1966-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307299 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307299/files/aer87.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307299 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Williams, Willard F. Author-Name: Dietrich, Raymond A. Title: An Interregional Analysis of the Fed Beef Economy Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: The evolution of the Nation 's fed beef industry since World War II has directed increased attention to problems associated with interregional adjustment. In this study of changing interregional economic relationships, the fed beef economy was conceived as a closely interrelated system of markets and supply areas. The analysis was confined within a carefully designed set of restrictive assumptions regarding underlying economic circumstances. These assumptions were systematically altered so that effects of specified situations or variables could be measured. The study confirms the widely accepted hypothesis that location and transportation costs are important determinants of competitive market power in interregional fed beef commerce. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 62 Number: 307300 Creation-Date: 1966-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307300 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307300/files/aer88.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307300 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: O'Dell, Charles A. Title: An Analysis of Wool Market News and its Importance to Marketing Efficiency Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The dissemination of current and reliable market information to all segments of the marketing system is essential if that system is to operate competitively and efficiently. To keep abreast of the increasing complexities of wool market reporting brought about by changes in the marketing system, the Consumer and Marketing Service (C&MS) proposed a joint research project with the Economic Research Service. Available wool marketing information did not appear to fully meet the needs of producers and local buyers for making decisions. C&MS particularly wanted to know whether their livestock news reporters, who were already in the wool producing areas, could also serve as wool reporters. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 20 Number: 307301 Creation-Date: 1966-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307301 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307301/files/aer89.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307301 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cathcart, William E. Author-Name: Donald, James R. Title: Analysis of Factors Affecting U.S. Cotton Exports Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: This cotton study is part of a continuing program of economic research designed provide information on factors influencing supply, utilization, and price of important agricultural commodities. The study has special interest at this time because of the decline in U.S. exports in recent years and the sharp build up in U.S. cotton stocks. This bulletin describes economic trends and measures the effect of principal economic factors that affect U.S. cotton exports. Information and results developed in this study are expected to be of special value to those involved in formulating policies and programs affecting the cotton industry. It should be of value also to producer groups, ginners, warehousemen, merchants, shippers, textile manufacturers, and other segments of the textile industry. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade Length: 65 Number: 307302 Creation-Date: 1966-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307302 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307302/files/aer90.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307302 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hunter, Elmer C. Author-Name: Madden, J. Patrick Title: Economies of Size for Specialized Beef Feedlots in Colorado Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: Beef fattening in northern Colorado is rapidly shifting from smaller to larger enterprises. From 1953 to 1963, the percentage of that area's feeder cattle in feedlots of less than 500-head capacity declined sharply--from 60 to 20 percent. Meanwhile, the percentage of the area’s cattle fed in lots of 5, 000-head capacity or larger rose from less than 25 to more than 50 percent. Farmers, specialized beef-feeding businesses, feed companies, meat packers, public officials, and others are concerned over these rapid changes. They want a clearer understanding of the economic forces behind such changes. They need answers to such questions as : Does volume have a significant bearing on cost per head in cattle feeding? If it does, how important are the cost reductions due to feedlot capacity in the competitive structure of the cattle-feeding industry? Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 53 Number: 307303 Creation-Date: 1966-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307303 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307303/files/aer91.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307303 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ibach, D. B. Title: Fertilizer Use in the United States: Its Economic Position and Outlook Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: General advances in farm technology will continue to increase crop yield responses to fertilizer. In 1960-64, farmers received a return of about $2. 50 per dollar spent for fertilizer. At these rates, the value of product added through use of a ton of NPK was equal to the value of crops produced on 9.4 acres of cropland (acreage on which crops were harvested, plus failure and cultivated summer fallow). Thus, for the United States as a whole, as long as a ton of NPK costs less than all operating costs (including fertilizer) for 9.4 acres, alternative levels of total production could be obtained more cheaply by using more fertilizer and less land. As fertilizer application rates are increased, other things equal, the added crop value per unit of application declines. Had rates been increased by an amount necessary to bring the added return per dollar of added fertilizer cost to $2, the 1960-64 level of crop production could have been obtained from 80 million fewer acres than the 339 million used for crops during that period. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 28 Number: 307304 Creation-Date: 1966-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307304 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307304/files/aer92.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307304 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElroy, Robert C. Author-Name: Gavett, Earle E Title: Termination of the Bracero Program: Some Effects on Farm Labor and Migrant Housing Needs Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The very seasonal nature of work required for agricultural production, particularly for the more labor-intensive crops, has generated the supplementary farmworker system in the United States. This system, intensified in recent years by technological innovation, has resulted in a large and fluctuating seasonal demand for supplementary farm labor. Supplementary farmworkers are classified into two major groups, domestic and foreign. Domestic workers are further categorized as local and migrant, depending upon their mobility; foreign workers are classified according to nationality. Except in the 1930's, legally imported foreign workers have made up some portion of the supply of supplemental workers for many decades. From its enactment in 1951 to its termination at the end of 1964, Public Law 78 was the chief law enabling entry of these workers. Termination of this law has caused concern in agriculture and in related segments of the economy. The number of Mexican workers (commonly known as braceros) contracted annually under P.L. 78 declined from a high of 445,197 in 1956 to 186,865 in 1963. Only 16,132 employers used braceros in 1963; the number contracted during the year constituted about 5.9 percent of the total number of persons who did supplemental farmwork. The average number of Mexicans employed during the year accounted for about 0.7 percent of the farmwork force. Thus, they made up a very small portion of the national farm labor force. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 34 Number: 307309 Creation-Date: 1965-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307309 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307309/files/aer77.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307309 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Garlock, Fred L. Title: Farmers and Their Debts: The Role of Credit in the Farm Economy Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: This report describes the debt situations of major groups of farmers at the end of 1960 and examines the role of credit, as reflected by debt, in the farm economy. Debt situations are described by showing the relationships between debts and factors such as income, landownership, and size of operations. The major purposes of the analysis are to throw light on the financial situations of farmers in various sectors of agriculture, and to determine the part played by credit in helping farmers to develop economic-size farm units and to build up their incomes and equities. The data upon which this report is based were supplied by about 11,000 farm operators who were included in the 1960 Sample Survey of Agriculture conducted by the Bureau of the Census. This survey was the first nationwide survey of virtually all kinds of farm debt in the United States (Alaska and Hawaii were not included). Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 28 Number: 307310 Creation-Date: 1966-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307310 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307310/files/aer93.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307310 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: The Role of Local Government in Economic Development of Rural Areas: Research Needs and Opportunities Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 20 Number: 307311 Creation-Date: 1966 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307311 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307311/files/aer94.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307311 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service, Marketing Economics Division Title: Agricultural Markets in Change Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: Research on economic problems in agricultural marketing is centered in the Marketing Economics Division of the Economic Research Service. Research is conducted on a wide range of functional and commodity problems that arise in moving the Nation's vast output of food and fiber from, producers to consumers. An outstanding characteristic of the research program is its concern with changes in marketing and their implication to producers and consumers. Results of the research are designed to help farmers, marketing firms, public officials, trade groups, and others make sound operating and policy decisions relating to marketing farm products, including procurement of supplies used in farm production. This report is for people who want to understand what research shows is happening and may happen in agricultural marketing. Separate chapters deal with the overall perspectives, innovations, market development, transportation, and various commodity groups. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 405 Number: 307312 Creation-Date: 1966-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307312 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307312/files/aer95.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307312 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jordan, Max F. Author-Name: Bender, Lloyd D. Title: An Economic Survey of the Ozark Region Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: The Ozark Region as delineated for this study comprises 115 counties in, or bordering, the Ozark and Ouachita Mountain areas of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. (The official delineation of the region was made by John T. Connor, Secretary of Commerce, March 2, 1966, and included 125 counties.) Employment opportunities within the region have contracted, causing a continued outmigration of youth, absolute population losses, and low incomes. Incomes are too low to support adequate public services. Low-wage labor-intensive industry moving into the area has contributed to an adverse industry balance. The age composition, insufficient education, and lack of marketable skills of the population tend to retard development of economic activities, and also tend to keep workers from moving where jobs are available. The major economic problem within the region affecting every type of adjustment is the amount and quality of education. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 89 Number: 307313 Creation-Date: 1966-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307313 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307313/files/aer97.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307313 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starbird, I. R. Author-Name: Hines, F. K. Title: Costs of Producing Upland Cotton in the United States, 1964 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The total cost of producing the U.S. crop of upland cotton in 1964 was 28.4 cents per pound of lint. This total cost figure includes market rates of return to all inputs used. The total direct cost of producing cotton (this excludes payments to land and farm overhead items) was 21.6 cents per pound of lint. About 64 percent of U.S. cotton was produced at a total cost of less than 30 cents per pound of lint, whereas about 88 percent was produced at a direct cost of less than 30 cents per pound of lint. Thirty cents is a close approximation of the 29. 3 cents per pound of lint received by survey respondents in 1964. The 1964 costs reported in this study are the result of aggregation and analysis of data on production inputs and prices obtained from interviews of 5,200 cotton farmers in the 18 major cotton-producing regions. These costs are associated with an average yield of 540 pounds of lint per acre, which reflects generally favorable weather conditions in most of the 18 regions in 1964. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 50 Number: 307314 Creation-Date: 1966-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307314 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307314/files/aer99.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307314 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starbird, I. R. Author-Name: French, B. L. Title: 1966 Supplement to Costs of Producing Upland Cotton in the United States, 1964 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The total cost of producing the U.S. crop of upland cotton in 1966 was 26.6 cents per pound of lint, compared with 27.3 cents in 1965 and 28.4 cents in 1964. The small decline in cost per pound in 1966 occurred in spite of a reduction in yield, according to a USDA survey made in major producing areas. The chief determinants of this cost reduction were a substantial decrease in the labor input and higher prices received for cottonseed. The value of seed produced was subtracted from the total cost of producing lint and associated seed and the residual was assumed to represent the cost of producing lint. This method implies that the cost of producing seed, a byproduct, is equal to its value. Total costs reflect market rates of return to all inputs except unpaid management. Inputs of unpaid management are not included in our cost estimates because of the lack of a definitive concept of management as an input and the associated measurement problems. The total direct cost of producing cotton (this excludes charges for land and farm overhead items) was 20.6 cents per pound of lint. The 1966 costs are associated with an average yield of 518 pounds of lint per acre. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 46 Number: 307315 Creation-Date: 1969-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307315 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307315/files/aer99sup1966.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307315 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harris, Edmond S. Title: Price Wars in City Milk Markets Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: This research project comprises (1) an analysis of the competitive processes in city milk markets, and (2) case studies of 23 phases of price warfare in 13 cities. The general analysis has helped us to identify the basic conditions of milk marketing which give rise to price wars. The case studies have contributed to our understanding of (1) the specific precipitating factors which touch off price wars, and (2) the kinds of changes in the structure and practices of the markets which occur in the course of price warfare. Then, from both the general analysis and the case studies we have been able to reach certain conclusions bearing on the relationship of price warfare to performance of the milk industries, and to indicate the implications of these conclusions for public policy. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Marketing Length: 104 Number: 307316 Creation-Date: 1966-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307316 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307316/files/aer100.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307316 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Rural People in the American Economy Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface and Introduction: The present report is an initial contribution of the Economic Development Division to these missions. It analyzes rural America from a number of viewpoints--size and characteristics of rural population, well-being, ways of life and making a living, troubled areas, current economic changes, and prospects. Planning for the economic development of the rural part of American society is a major theme. This publication aims to contribute to an understanding of the varied and changing face of rural America. It is concerned with factors affecting the participation of rural people in the Nation's development, emphasizing considerations important to the future of rural America. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 128 Number: 307317 Creation-Date: 1966-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307317 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307317/files/aer101.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307317 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Demand for Farm Tractors in the United States: A Regression Analysis Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Total farm power available to farmers increased from about 40 million horsepower in 1920 to 385 million in 1962. Tractor horsepower (maximum belt) increased from 5,000,000 to 162 million during this same period. The demand for additional new tractors evolved from many individual farmers maintaining or adding to their stock of tractors. In this report, a single-equation regression model is used to explain aggregate tractor horsepower purchases for the United States between 1920 and 1962. Tractor horsepower purchases are expressed as a function of economic, technological, and personal preference variables. They include tractor horsepower on hand, crop production, ratio of tractor prices to prices received for products sold, size of new tractors purchased, age of tractors, and number of farms. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 54 Number: 307318 Creation-Date: 1966-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307318 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307318/files/aer103.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307318 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Allen, Philip T. Title: Farm Real-Estate Credit: An Analysis of Borrowers and Lenders, A Report Based on the Debt Portion of the 1960 Census Sample Survey of Agriculture Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Financial Economics Length: 44 Number: 307319 Creation-Date: 1966-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307319 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307319/files/aer104.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307319 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gale, Hazen F. Title: The Farm Food Marketing Bill and Its Components Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Consumer expenditures for food products originating from domestic farms were estimated at $78 billion in 1965. Payments to agencies for marketing these products were $52 billion and returns to farmers were $26 billion. The total marketing bill of $49 billion in 1963 was made up of the following agency components: Processors, $19 billion; retailers (including eating places), $22 billion; and assemblers, transportation agencies, and wholesalers, $8 billion (the latest available data). The farmer's share of consumer expenditures declined from 42 percent in 1929 to 32 percent in 1963, although it had risen to 46 percent in 1947. The slower increase in farm prices relative to unit marketing charges during 1929-63 was partly offset by a shift from consumption of products with a low farm share to products with a high share. During 1939-47, practically all farm prices rose considerably faster than corresponding unit marketing charges. After 1947, marketing charges rose steadily; farm, prices declined about 20 percent during 1951-59 and remained relatively stable during 1960-64. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 63 Number: 307320 Creation-Date: 1967-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307320 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307320/files/aer105.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307320 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Farmers' Expenditures for Pesticides in 1964 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Information in this study is based on a survey of farmers whose sales represented 90 percent of total agricultural sales in the United States. Nearly all used some pesticides in 1964. Of the farmers surveyed, 94 percent used pesticides, either for treating crop and other land, livestock, and poultry, or for controlling rodents. These farmers spent $456 million on pesticides in 1964. In addition, supplementary information indicates that farmers who operated small farms but were not included in the survey spent about $58 million on pesticides. Thus, expenditures for pesticides by all farmers in 1964 amounted to $514 million. Of the total pesticide expenditures, 85 percent were for treating crops, about 11 percent were for treating livestock and poultry, and 4 percent were for other uses. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 12 Number: 307321 Creation-Date: 1967-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307321 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307321/files/aer106.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307321 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Madden, J. Patrick Title: Economies of Size in Farming: Theory, Analytical Procedures, and a Review of Selected Studies Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Selected studies of the economies of size in crop production, specialized beef feedlots, and dairy farms were reviewed. The theoretical basis for analyzing economies of size was discussed, and several alternative analytical procedures were examined. The analytical procedure that provides the most reliable results in studying economies of size in farming is the synthetic-firm or economic-engineering approach. When the farm organization includes relatively few choices, this type of analysis may be done through manual budgeting. But when more complex farming operations are analyzed, linear programming is helpful. Choice of a residual claimant (the factors that absorb profit) strongly influences the height and shape of the average cost curve. For example, as more factors are included in the residual claimant, total cost is reduced, thus lowering average cost. A modified concept of the farm firm--viewing the farm as a goods-and-services firm--provides a realistic basis for explaining the persistence of a relatively large number of small farms and part-time farms. This concept also helps to account for the rising importance of custom-hired farm operations. A number of studies of crop-farming situations in various States were reviewed. In most of these situations, all of the economies of size could be achieved by modern and fully mechanized 1-man or 2-man farms. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 87 Number: 307322 Creation-Date: 1967-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307322 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307322/files/aer107.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307322 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Loomis, R. A. Author-Name: Wirth, M. E. Title: An Economic Survey of the Northern Lake States Region Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: This report was prepared to aid public and private groups and individuals interested in stimulating economic growth in the Lake States -- Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Special emphasis is given to the Northern Region of these States. Fundamental information and analyses are provided to establish priorities among alternative means of increasing the level of economic activity and the incomes of families and individuals. The study described here is an overall survey of the Northern Lake States, with emphasis on regional analysis. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 147 Number: 307323 Creation-Date: 1967-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307323 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307323/files/aer108.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307323 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Moore, Clarence A. Title: An Economic Evaluation of Starch Use in the Textile Industry Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The demand for starch in textile manufacturing derives from the demand for and supply conditions of the end products of the industry. Roughly 13 percent of the traditional market for textiles was lost over the last two decades to nontextile materials such as paper, plastics, rubber, and glass. Also, domestic consumption of natural fibers decreased in proportion to the amount of manmade fibers in textiles. Cotton contributed almost 80 percent of the total cotton-equivalent pounds of fibers used annually during 1940-44, but only 52 percent during 1960-64. It is becoming increasingly important that chemicals be "tailor-made" for more specialized tasks in textile sizing, printing, and finishing. The increasing number of different fibers, yarn counts, blends, and fabrics tends to insure, for example, that a sizing agent that performs well for one yarn will not do so for the majority of others. Consequently, starch's economic competitive position will be maintained or improved by the starch industry's ability to provide modified and starch-derived products applicable for sizing the wide variety of yarns and fabrics being woven. Technology is the key to its potential. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics Length: 39 Number: 307324 Creation-Date: 1967-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307324 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307324/files/aer109.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307324 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Leonard, Olen E. Author-Name: Johnson, Helen W. Title: Low-Income Families in the Spanish-Surname Population of the Southwest Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights and Introduction: The 3.5 million Spanish-surname people of five Southwestern States (Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas) represented 12 percent of the total population of that area in 1960. Although predominantly rural only a few decades ago, the Spanish-surname population as a whole has become one of the most urban ethnic groups in the United States. In the Southwest, it was nearly 80 percent urban in 1960. The Spanish-surname population of the Southwest contains many low-income families and has unsolved social and economic problems. This report focuses attention on the characteristics of these families which are associated with the special nature of their problems, so that there may be better understanding of them. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 35 Number: 307325 Creation-Date: 1967-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307325 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307325/files/aer112.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307325 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Title: Noncaloric Sweeteners: Their Position in the Sweetener Industry Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The rapid increase in the consumption of noncaloric sweeteners, particularly cyclamate, in the early sixties has added a significant new dimension to the market for sweeteners in the United States. Prior to 1950, nearly all sales of noncaloric sweeteners and of foods sweetened with them apparently were made to persons who were unable to use sugar. With the introduction of cyclamate, followed by mixtures of saccharin and cyclamate, consumption of noncaloric sweeteners began to increase. The most rapid increase occurred in the soft drink market in 1963 and 1964. Rather large gains were also made in these years in other uses, such as for dry beverage bases and in direct retail sales. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 24 Number: 307326 Creation-Date: 1967-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307326 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307326/files/aer113.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307326 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Tweeten, Luther G. Title: The Role of Education in Alleviating Rural Poverty Abstract: Excerpt from the report: The growing commitment by society to alleviate rural poverty has not been matched with effective prescriptions by economists for accomplishing the task. A growing body of literature documents the central role of human resources in economic development. Few studies have directed this thinking to problems of rural poverty. This study focuses on one important element of the human resource, education, and its role in raising income and living standards in rural areas characterized by low incomes. The rich and growing body of literature on the economics of education in its broadest sense is drawn upon in this study where possible, and oriented to rural society. The purpose is to provide a framework for more effective research and action programs oriented to problems of rural poverty in the United States. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 60 Number: 307327 Creation-Date: 1967-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307327 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307327/files/aer114.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307327 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dietrich, Raymond A. Title: Price Information and Meat Marketing in Texas and Oklahoma Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Recent developments in the livestock and meat industry in the Southern Plains (Texas and Oklahoma) necessitate changes in the marketing information available to producers and meat handlers in that area. Economic forces generating such changes include (1) a rapidly expanding cattle feeding industry, (2) the production and consumption of large volumes of relatively light beef carcasses for which adequate market information is often not available, and (3) the changing structure of the Southern Plains meat industry. This report suggests a price reporting system that would include daily quotations for the Dallas-Fort Worth and Oklahoma City markets, supplemented by weekly quotations for the Dallas-Fort Worth, Houston, San Antonio, Amarillo-Lubbock, Tulsa, and Oklahoma City markets. This system would combine features of both daily and weekly systems, would satisfy the timeliness criterion, and appears economically feasible. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 51 Number: 307328 Creation-Date: 1967-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307328 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307328/files/aer115.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307328 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Author-Name: Stedronsky, Victor L. Author-Name: Looney, Zolon M. Author-Name: Moore, Vernon P. Title: Engineering and Economic Aspects of Cotton Gin Operations: Midsouth, West Texas, Far West Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Since 1926, U.S. cotton production has increased very slightly, while the number of active gin plants has declined rapidly. Gins in most of the major producing areas, although becoming fewer in number, have increased in size. The one exception to the trend has been the Far West. In this area, both gin numbers and gin size have increased simultaneously. The deviation from the national trend has been due mainly to the earlier and more rapid adoption of mechanical harvesting in this area. The determination of optimal gin size for well established areas depends upon gin plant population, production density, relative concentration of the harvest period, availability of seed cotton storage, assembly cost, and anticipated revenue. In developing large, new producing areas where gin plant population and production densities are not limiting factors, the 24-bale per hour model would be generally recommended. However, for older, well established producing areas optimal gin size would be smaller. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 46 Number: 307344 Creation-Date: 1967-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307344 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307344/files/aer116.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307344 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crom, Richard J. Title: Simulated Interregional Models of the Livestock-Meat Economy Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Optimal interregional trade patterns for slaughter cattle and hogs, and beef and pork are determined under several alternative market conditions that might occur in the midseventies. Projections of cattle and hog production for slaughter, beef and pork consumption, slaughter capacity, transportation costs, and labor costs for slaughter in 26 regions of the continental United States provide the basic data for the model used. The spatial model developed and used by Judge, Havlicek, and Rizek in Research Bulletin 163 was used to determine the optimal flows of both livestock and meat. In this model, both livestock and meat transportation costs and slaughter labor costs are minimized, subject to the maximum slaughter capacity available in each region. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 67 Number: 307345 Creation-Date: 1967-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307345 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307345/files/aer117.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307345 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stoner, John E. Title: Interlocal Governmental Cooperation: A Study of Five States Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: As demands for governmental services increase in rural areas, alternative ways of providing the services and the funds to pay for them need to be studied. Cooperation among local units of government in rural areas has been advanced as a desirable alternative, but little information was available about how cooperative endeavors worked out in practice. The present study was designed to explore local cooperation in the rural, nonmetropolitan portions of five States—Alabama, Indiana, Nebraska, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. These States were selected as representative of those with a variety of systems of local government. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 131 Number: 307346 Creation-Date: 1967-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307346 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307346/files/aer118.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307346 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Slocum, Walter L. Title: Aspirations and Expectations of the Rural Poor: A Guide to Research Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 39 Number: 307347 Creation-Date: 1967-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307347 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307347/files/aer122.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307347 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jordan, Max F. Title: Rural Industrialization in the Ozarks: Case Study of a New Shirt Plant at Gassville, Ark. Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: This publication reports on the short-term economic impact of a shirt plant upon the local economy of a rural area of northern Arkansas. It describes the economy of the area at the time of the plant establishment in 1960 and examines the short-run impact of the plant through 1963. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 27 Number: 307348 Creation-Date: 1967-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307348 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307348/files/aer123.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307348 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bird, Alan R. Author-Name: McCoy, John L. Title: White Americans in Rural Poverty Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: White Americans in rural areas are a major and persistent poverty problem in the Nation. Estimates concerning the extent of this problem are based on an extension beyond the census definition of rural to include all nonmetropolitan territory outside of central cities and urban fringe. In 1960, there were 9.65 million families (white and nonwhite) in the Nation whose 1959 net cash incomes were less than $3,000. Of this number, some 6.1 million families lived in nonmetropolitan areas. Eighty percent of these families were white. This proportion of poor rural whites is likely to be at least as high today. Although Spanish Americans are included in the census of the white population, they are excluded from this discussion, because their problems are the subject of a special paper. Special problems of these whites in poverty reflect their relative anonymity, lack of organization, and lack of a common identity. Although concentrated in parts of Appalachia, the Ozarks, and the South, they are for the most part a scattered population located in many small hamlets, farming villages, and open country, including affluent farming areas. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty Length: 22 Number: 307349 Creation-Date: 1967-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307349 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307349/files/aer124.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307349 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Burns, James A. Title: Measuring the Effect of Irrigation on Rate of Technological Change: Texas High Plains, San Joaquin Valley, Mississippi Delta Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: A method for measuring technological advancement associated with irrigated agriculture is described and tested herein. The method is based upon the Solow Model of technical change, which enables the computation of an index of technological change over time. The method involves derivation of aggregate production functions from time series data for selected irrigated and nonirrigated areas. Shifts in the production functions over time are then measured by computing indexes of technological change. The changes in the indexes for irrigated and nonirrigated agriculture over time are then compared to determine the effect that irrigation has had on the rate of adoption of new technology. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 26 Number: 307350 Creation-Date: 1967-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307350 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307350/files/aer125.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307350 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nikolitch, Radoje Title: Comparison of Age Levels of Farmers and Other Self-employed Persons Abstract: Excerpts from the report Conclusion: Information presented in this paper does not support the notion that farm operators are getting older than self-employed people in other occupations. If anything, farmers in the expanding sector of our farm economy tend to be somewhat younger than other self- employed workers. Farmers in this group today account for more than four-fifths of total farm production. There are, however, a great number of small-scale farms on which we find an aging population of farmers. Despite the somewhat younger operators on the larger farms, it is true that on the whole, we are getting an agricultural population of older farmers. But it should be emphasized that, while this represents a very real human problem for a large number of small-scale late middle-aged and older farmers, it does not pose any significant problem to the commercial farming industry as such. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 15 Number: 307351 Creation-Date: 1967-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307351 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307351/files/aer126.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307351 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Berry, Brian J. L. Title: Strategies, Models, and Economic Theories of Development in Rural Regions Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: The prosperity of the United States has reached an unprecedented level. The National Government has adopted policies to reduce the severity of cyclical disturbances in the economy and to maintain a high and rising level of production and wealth. Yet, one-fifth of the population is not sharing the national prosperity. Poverty continues to exist. It is concentrated most noticeably in the heart of big cities, and continues to be the normal lot of rural residents in many places. Poverty remains a broad regional phenomenon and permeates every major section of the country. Furthermore, it is not monolithic. There are several types of poverty affecting different segments of the rural population in different ways at different places. Broader views of regional situations and new kinds of policy are evidently needed in order to solve this problem. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 46 Number: 307352 Creation-Date: 1967-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307352 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307352/files/aer127.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307352 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stinson, Thomas F. Title: Financing Industrial Development Through State and Local Governments Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: This report was designed to provide basic information about the ways States can provide financial assistance to new firms and to firms which wish to expand or relocate. Each of the five programs discussed has its advantages and disadvantages, and no one of them is the proper method for use in all cases. Before any judgments can be made on the value of public financing programs in general, or on the usefulness of the various existing programs, additional study of specific situations will be required. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 18 Number: 307353 Creation-Date: 1967-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307353 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307353/files/aer128.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307353 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anthony, Willis E. Title: Structural Changes in the Federally Inspected Meat Processing Industry, 1961-64 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: Most meatpacking operations are performed by two closely related industries--livestock slaughter and meat processing. Traditionally they have been joint operations, and most meatpacking firms still perform both operations. However, some slaughtering firms do not process meat, and many meat processing firms do not slaughter livestock. Though many other firms may slaughter and process, they confine their operations primarily to one or the other. Thus, the structural characteristics of the two industries are not necessarily the same. The structural characteristics of livestock slaughter firms help describe an industry participating as a buyer in the livestock market. On the other hand, the characteristics of meat processing firms help describe an industry participating as a supplier in the meat market. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 24 Number: 307354 Creation-Date: 1968-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307354 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307354/files/aer129.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307354 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Taylor, Reed D. Author-Name: Kohler, George O. Author-Name: Maddy, Kenneth H. Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Title: Alfalfa Meal in Poultry Feeds: An Economic Evaluation Using Parametric Linear Programming Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: To determine the value of dehydrated alfalfa meal (dehy) in poultry feeds, intrinsic value curves were developed using the parametric linear programming technique. The points on the curves corresponded to points of substitution—points at which a nutritional factor in dehy substituted for a nutritional factor from some other source. Configuration of the curves was dependent on the quality of dehy, the specifications of the ration being formulated, competitive ingredients, and ingredient prices. Changes in any of these factors usually resulted in significant alterations in curve configurations. At each solution point (point of substitution) on the curve, a complete ration formula was obtained, shadow prices were established for ingredients not entering the solutions, and opportunity costs were specified for ration requirements. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 24 Number: 307355 Creation-Date: 1968-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307355 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307355/files/aer130.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307355 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Quantities of Pesticides Used by Farmers in 1964 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Although chemical pesticides are used by nearly all farmers in the United States, the quantity used on farms in 1964 was about 42 percent of all pesticides produced in the country that year. The remainder was used by industry, Government, and homeowners, or was exported. The amount farmers spent for pesticides nearly tripled between 1954 and 1964. Farmers used about 458 million pounds of pesticides (technical basis, 100 percent active materials) to control crop and livestock pests in 1964. In addition, they used about 313 million pounds of petroleum as pesticidal material. Total value of these pesticides, including petroleum, amounted to about $500 million. The major share of the pesticides was used on crops--about 93 percent by weight of the technical ingredients. Livestock accounted for 3 percent of the pesticides and other uses accounted for 4 percent. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 43 Number: 307356 Creation-Date: 1968-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307356 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307356/files/aer131.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307356 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fuller, Theodore E. Title: Employment in Appalachia: Trends and Prospects Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The economy of Appalachia in the 1950's experienced acute adjustments. Two structurally important basic industries--agriculture and mining--contracted much more rapidly in the region than in the Nation. Manufacturing, trade, services, and other activities expanded, but at less than national rates. The net effect was that growth in total employment and population in Appalachia lagged considerably behind the Nation. High residual proportions of the unemployed and the lower income in 1960 in the region than in the Nation were a byproduct of the lag in growth. Small-center rural areas typically had sizable losses in both total employment and population. In 1960, rates of unemployment and proportions of families with low incomes were much higher in small- than in large-center areas of the region. The relative and perhaps absolute needs of small-center areas for some type of economic adjustment were greater than those of the large center areas. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 60 Number: 307358 Creation-Date: 1968-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307358 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307358/files/aer134.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307358 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stinson, Thomas F. Title: The Effects of Taxes and Public Financing Programs on Local Industrial Development: A Survey of the Literature Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: Local tax concessions and public industrial financing programs are gaining popular acceptance as ways State and local governments can promote economic development. They are of special interest as catalysts for development in rural areas where small new firms may need financial assistance. If effective means of promoting development of rural areas are to be found, information on the effects of these programs is badly needed. Studies of the effects of these programs on local industrial development have been reported in a wide variety of publications, many of which are not readily available either to research workers or to the general public. Although some of the studies cited were made some time ago, these studies are still the basic sources of information on the effects of taxation on industrialization for planners and economists. This report brings together and summarizes the results and conclusions of a number of these studies. The report, however, offers no judgments-- other than those contained in the studies cited--about the usefulness of either tax incentives or industrial financing programs for promoting local industrial development. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 28 Number: 307359 Creation-Date: 1968-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307359 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307359/files/aer133.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307359 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Holmes, O. Wendell Title: The Impact of Public Spending in a Low-Income Rural Area: A Case Study of Fort Leonard Wood, Mo. Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Fort Leonard Wood has a direct economic impact on nearly 50,000 people and indirectly affects approximately the same number. The people working or living on the Fort and hence directly affected by Government spending total over 35,000 in the military service, 14,000 civilian employees of the Department of the Army, and about 8,000 military dependents. More difficult to assess is the impact which a public installation such as the Fort has on various segments of the private and nonmilitary public sectors of the local economy. The Fort has little direct impact on the agricultural economy, as little of the agricultural production of the immediate area is consumed at the Fort. However, employment created by the Fort enables some farmers to become part-time farmers and hold full or part-time jobs off the farm. Employment in the agricultural industry has dropped in all counties adjacent to the Fort. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Public Economics Length: 26 Number: 307360 Creation-Date: 1968-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307360 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307360/files/aer135.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307360 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bowring, James R. Author-Name: Steward, Donald D. Author-Name: Bird, Ronald Title: Effects of Economic Opportunity Loans on Lobster Fishermen in Maine, 1965-67 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Economic Opportunity loans to lobster fishermen o£ Hancock and Washington Counties, Maine, averaged $1,918 in 1965. The funds were used primarily for the purchase or repair of boats and other equipment. Only a small part was used for construction or repairs to buildings. Under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, the Farmers Home Administration makes loans to low-income rural families to finance small farm and nonfarm businesses, trades, or services. All lobster fishermen who obtained an EO loan were experienced fishermen. Most were independent fishermen prior to applying for a loan, although some were working for other lobstermen. In the first year after receiving their loans, the borrowers reported a net cash family income averaging $2,927, an increase of $565 above that reported in the year prior to receiving the loan. In addition, they expected further increases averaging $879 in the second year. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 24 Number: 307361 Creation-Date: 1968-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307361 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307361/files/aer136.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307361 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: The Structure of Fluid Milk Markets: Two Decades of Change Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: Around the turn of the century when fluid milk markets began to assume their present form, city markets were highly local in character. Literally hundreds of fluid milk distributors operated in large city markets. But, even at that time, a few large dealers did most of the business. Since then, their numbers have been drastically reduced by a series of technological changes and shifts in the economic environment. This study concentrates on the postwar changes in numbers of plants and firms in the fluid milk business and in their market shares, to provide a better understanding of the economic processes that are taking place. This recent history can be understood only in relation to the developments which preceded it. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 56 Number: 307362 Creation-Date: 1968-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307362 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307362/files/aer137.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307362 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Supplement for 1969 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 90 Number: 307363 Creation-Date: 1971-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307363 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307363/files/aer138sup1969.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307363 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Supplement for 1974 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 95 Number: 307364 Creation-Date: 1976-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307364 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307364/files/aer138sup1974.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307364 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures Supplement for 1976 Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 80 Number: 307365 Creation-Date: 1978-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307365 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307365/files/aer138sup1976.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307365 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Spiegelman, Robert G. Title: A Study of Industry Location Using Multiple Regression Techniques Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: This research was undertaken using a multiple regression model that would serve one or more of the following purposes: (1) determine the factors associated with location of individual manufacturing industries, (2) project the spatial distribution of manufacturing industries, and (3) provide assistance to local development planners in evaluating the prospects for their areas to acquire additional employment in specific manufacturing industries. The 506 State economic areas were used as the grid system for location analysis. The four-digit (Standard Industrial Classification) manufacturing category was chosen for industry analysis. Fifty-three industries were analyzed in the study. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 70 Number: 307366 Creation-Date: 1968-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307366 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307366/files/aer140.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307366 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zimmer, John M. Author-Name: Manny, Elsie S. Title: Population Characteristics of Farm Operator Households Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: This report analyzes selected characteristics of persons in U.S. farm operator households in relation to the 1964 farm operator level-of-living index. These characteristics include age, color, sex, educational attainment of persons in these households, and size of farm business in terms of gross sales. Income data are analyzed for 30 counties selected for special study. The relationship of various characteristics of the population to level of living is a factor relevant to economic and social development programs. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 16 Number: 307367 Creation-Date: 1968-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307367 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307367/files/aer141.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307367 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Scofield, William H. Author-Name: Coffman, George W. Title: Corporations Having Agricultural Operations: A Preliminary Report Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: In November 1967, Secretary Freeman directed the Economic Research Service to conduct a survey to determine the number, kinds, and general characteristics of corporations that were directly involved in the production of farm products. Concern had been expressed over the apparent increase in the number of nonfarm corporations reported to be buying land and initiating new farming enterprises. Few data were available by which to judge the importance of this trend or to evaluate the possible impact on market prices of farm products and on local business communities. This preliminary report summarizes the results of this inventory-type survey for 22 States. Similar data have been obtained for the remaining 26 conterminous States, and a complete report will be issued at a later date. The survey sought to identify every incorporated business that was directly engaged in the production of farm products and to obtain a few descriptive facts about each. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 26 Number: 307368 Creation-Date: 1968-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307368 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307368/files/aer142.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307368 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bird, Ronald Author-Name: Beverly, Lucia H. Title: Status of Water and Sewage Facilities in Communities Without Public Systems Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: Public water and sewage systems have become an integral part of community life. These systems have enabled communities to assure an adequate supply of water for domestic and industrial use and an efficient means of collecting waste materials. Because of the importance of water and sewage systems in maintaining community health. Federal programs have been initiated to assist communities in obtaining adequate facilities. Heretofore, very little information has been available on the extent of communities lacking public facilities. This study was undertaken to determine the number, location, and size of the communities without public water systems and without public sewage facilities and the degree to which Federal assistance programs have helped in establishing these facilities. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 24 Number: 307369 Creation-Date: 1968-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307369 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307369/files/aer143.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307369 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bird, Ronald Author-Name: Beverly, Lucia Author-Name: Simmons, Anne Title: Status of Rural Housing in the United States Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: Rural housing is less adequate than urban housing primarily because a larger percentage of rural homes lack inside plumbing. Of the 17.6 million occupied and unoccupied rural housing units in 1960, 3.7 million did not have water piped inside. Of the 40.8 million urban housing units, only 0.4 million lacked this convenience. In 1960, there were 8.5 million occupied substandard units in the United States; 4.8 million were located in rural areas. Of the substandard rural units, 2.0 million lacked inside plumbing, 1.7 million lacked some plumbing facilities, and 1.1 million were dilapidated. Nearly two-thirds of the occupants of substandard housing in rural areas in 1960 had family incomes of less than $3,000 a year. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 35 Number: 307370 Creation-Date: 1968-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307370 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307370/files/aer144.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307370 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gale, John F. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Farmers' Pesticide Expenditures for Crops, Livestock, and Other Selected Uses in 1964 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Approximately 94 percent of all farmers in the United States used pesticides in 1964. For pesticide materials alone, farmers spent an estimated $479 million--$424 million for crops, $31 million for livestock, $17 million for treatment of land not in crop production, and $7 million for rodent control. This is a revision of the previously reported total of $514 million and is based on a more detailed expansion of the sample data. In 1964, $114 million was spent for pesticides used on cotton, more than for any other crop. Over 90 percent of the total acreages in apples, other deciduous fruits, and tobacco were treated. Among all crops, costs for pesticide materials ranged from an average of 56 cents an acre for wheat to $53.40 an acre for apples. Almost 60 percent of the acreage in corn--the most widely grown crop in the United States--was treated at an average cost of $1.87 an acre. Fruits and vegetables were more likely to be treated than were field crops, the survey showed. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 25 Number: 307371 Creation-Date: 1968-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307371 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307371/files/aer145.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307371 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Farmers' Expenditures for Custom Pesticide Service in 1964 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Farmers use custom pesticide services extensively. In the 48 contiguous States, they spent about $173 million for custom pesticide services, including the cost of application and materials, in 1964. This amounted to an average of about $55 for each farmer. Nearly $172 million was spent to control crop pests and slightly less than $2 million to control livestock pests. The cost of custom-applied pesticide materials used on crops and livestock was $115 million or one-fourth of all pesticides used by farmers in 1964. Cotton was the major crop on which custom pesticide services were used. Growers spent $65 million for custom services on cotton, an average of $857 for each farm using such services. Forty-three percent of the farmers using pesticides on cotton used some custom services. The crop categories with the highest average cost per farm for custom pesticide applications and materials were certain fruits and nuts ($1,661) and potatoes ($1,490). Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 30 Number: 307372 Creation-Date: 1968-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307372 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307372/files/aer146.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307372 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fox, Austin Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert Author-Name: Blake, Helen Title: Extent of Farm Pesticide Use on Crops in 1966 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Over half of all U.S. farmers use weed, insect, or disease control chemicals on their crops. In 1966, about 37 percent of the farmers growing crops used herbicides, 29 percent used insecticides, 4 percent used fungicides, and 8 percent used other pesticides (including defoliants, desiccants, growth regulators, miticides, and rodenticides). The proportion of crop acreage treated with pesticide chemicals is increasing. This is especially true for herbicides. For example, corn acreage treated with herbicides increased from 11 percent in 1952 to 57 percent in 1966. Cotton acreage on which herbicides were applied went up from 7 percent in 1958 to 52 percent in 1966. Considering all crops, about 27 percent of the total cropland (not including pasture and rangeland) was treated with weed control chemicals in 1966. They were applied on over half of the corn, cotton, rice, peanuts, and potato acreage. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management Length: 28 Number: 307373 Creation-Date: 1968-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307373 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307373/files/aer147.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307373 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Williams, Ellis T. Title: Forest Taxation and the Preservation of Rural Values in New York Abstract: Excerpts from the report Conclusion: In concluding this report, three needs should be emphasized. The first is to recognize the prospect of increasing multiple use of the State's forest land over the years ahead. The second need is that of coordinating tax and conservation policies if the long run interests of forest owners, other rural landowners, and residents of metropolitan areas are to be protected. The third need is to recognize that a community of interest exists among forest owners oriented toward timber production, those oriented toward recreation, farmers, and urban groups concerned with wise use of rural lands. Only as conservation, agricultural, "open space," and "natural beauty" interests make common cause can the protection and development of the State's forest resource and the preservation of its rural values be assured. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 27 Number: 307374 Creation-Date: 1969-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307374 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307374/files/aer150.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307374 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Steward, Donald D. Title: Impact of Economic Opportunity Loans on Rural Residents: South Carolina, The Ozarks, Mississippi Delta, 1966 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The Farmers Home Administration had made Economic Opportunity loans to 44,478 families throughout the United States by February 29, 1968. Total funds loaned since the program was initiated in January 1965 exceeded $86 million and averaged $1,935 per borrower. The large number of borrowers was still less than 1 percent of the number of all rural households reporting incomes of less than $3,000 in 1959. About two-thirds of the loans were for farming purposes: developing and improving land, repairing and constructing buildings, adding a new enterprise to the operation of the farm, paying operating expenses, and refinancing debts. Nonagricultural loans were used for developing a wide range of nonfarm enterprises. The most prominent use of loan funds was for purchasing machinery and equipment. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 67 Number: 307375 Creation-Date: 1968-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307375 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307375/files/aer151.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307375 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mathis, A. G. Author-Name: Fravel, Dolores Title: Government's Role in Pricing Fluid Milk in the United States Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 35 Number: 307376 Creation-Date: 1968-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307376 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307376/files/aer152.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307376 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Allen, George C. Author-Name: Mighell, Ronald L. Author-Name: Hobson, Barbara G. Title: Urea Consumed by Cattle and Calves on Feed, Feeding Year 1965-66 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: Commercial urea is a synthetic nitrogen compound used to replace part of the protein in the ration for cattle, sheep, and other ruminants. A ruminant cannot utilize urea directly, but microorganisms in the rumen convert urea to protein which can be digested. These microorganisms also need carbohydrates to feed on. It is advantageous to use commercial urea because the combined cost of urea and the requisite carbohydrates is usually much less than the cost of oilseed meals or other common sources of equivalent protein. This report presents the results of a national survey on urea used by cattle and calves on feed. It provides answers to such questions as how much urea is being consumed by cattle on feed, in what forms it is being fed, what percentages of feedlots and cattle on feed are being supplied with it, what are the most common sources of supply, and what regional and size group differences may be present. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries Length: 18 Number: 307377 Creation-Date: 1969-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307377 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307377/files/aer153.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307377 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fliginger, C. John Author-Name: Gavett, Earle E. Author-Name: Powell, Levi A. Sr. Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert P. Title: Supplying U.S. Markets with Fresh Winter Produce: Capabilities of U.S. and Mexican Production Areas Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Research on the international aspects of production and marketing of winter fruits and vegetables shows that Mexico--with an increase of imports from $18,907,000 in 1956 to $99,596,000 in 1967--has become an important source of fruits and vegetables for the United States. Traditionally, winter produce for the U.S. market came primarily from Florida, California, and Texas. Mexico, in recent years, has moved ahead of California and Texas as a major supplier of vegetables, and has the potential of becoming the dominant supplier. Supplies of winter produce began to come to the United States from Mexico and the Caribbean area in the early 1900's. Prior to the 1950's, domestic producers apparently did not look upon these supplies as a threat. However, by the end of the 1950's, producers began to feel alarm over Mexico's growing share of the U.S. vegetable market. The loss of Cuba as a production base, termination of the special provisions of the Immigration and Nationality Act admitting foreign seasonal agricultural workers (bracero program), and development of transportation and irrigation facilities in western Mexico contributed to Mexico's growth as a supplier of winter produce. California and Texas had climate disadvantages which quickly forced them into minor positions as winter supply areas for certain types of produce after Mexico began to expand its output. The Florida vegetable industry began to feel pressure from Mexican imports around the mid-sixties. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 169 Number: 307378 Creation-Date: 1969-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307378 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307378/files/aer154.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307378 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElveen, Jackson V. Title: Characteristics of Human Resources in the Rural Southeast Coastal Plain: With Emphasis on the Poor Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: This study of human resources in a 10-county area of the Northeast Coastal Plain of South Carolina disclosed severe and persistent problems--problems that preclude easy or quick solutions. Implied needs of the rural population are more jobs; improved housing; greater educational opportunities for youth; training, retraining, and job placement services for adults; and programs of public assistance. The success of programs to provide these needs will depend largely on the attitudes of the area's rural inhabitants, their capacity for self-improvement, and their willingness to accept change. Although the results of the study relate specifically to the 10-county area, this area is believed to be typical of the rural environment of the broad Coastal Plain Region Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 95 Number: 307379 Creation-Date: 1969-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307379 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307379/files/aer155.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307379 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coffman, George W. Author-Name: Scofield, William H. Title: Corporations Having Agricultural Operations: Preliminary Report II Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: A total of 4,850 corporate county units operating about 13 million acres of land were found in the 25 States included in this report. Such units represented less than 1 percent of all commercial farms and 5 percent of the land in farms in these States. About one-third of the total number and two-thirds of the total acreage in corporate county units was in 2 States--Florida and Texas. In Florida, 9 percent of the total number of commercial farms and 31 percent of the land in farms were corporate. Several States in the Northeast also had a relatively high proportion of their commercial farms operated by corporations. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 25 Number: 307380 Creation-Date: 1969-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307380 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307380/files/aer156.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307380 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: DDT Used in Farm Production Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: One of the most widely used insecticides in the United States and in the world is DDT. It is effective against a large number of pests whose control is important to assure adequate supplies of food and fiber. Its broad spectrum insecticidal properties, combined with long residual life and relative safety in handling, make it desirable for many control purposes. DDT is a recommended control for at least 150 pests which can damage economic crops. DDT decomposes very slowly under certain conditions, is almost insoluble in water, and has a tendency to accumulate in the fatty tissue of warm-blooded animals including man. There is some concern that certain types of wildlife may be adversely affected by this tendency. This report shows recent use of DDT in U.S. farm production and indicates trends in total U.S. production of DDT and its overall use. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 11 Number: 307381 Creation-Date: 1969-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307381 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307381/files/aer158.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307381 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stam, Jerome M. Title: Selected Economic Trends in the Agricultural Sector, Northern Lake States: 1949-64 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: In almost every agricultural and economic aspect the 119 Northern Region counties (NR) in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin trail the 123 Southern Region counties (SR) in those States and the Nation, but the gap is closing according to the 1964 Census of Agriculture. The report compares in detail the following topics for the three areas in 1949, 1959, and 1964: Farm size, cropland acres per farm, decrease in number of farms, economic class of farms, investment in land and buildings, value of farm products sold, amount of and income from off-farm work, income from farm recreation enterprises, and educational level. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 91 Number: 307382 Creation-Date: 1969-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307382 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307382/files/aer159.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307382 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herr, William McD. Title: New Borrowers in the Farmers Home Administration Operating Loan Program, 1965-66: Compared with New Borrowers Obtaining Loans from Banks and Production Credit Associations Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: Through the years, the Federal Government has provided farmers with several credit programs. Since 1946, direct farm credit activities of the Government have been conducted by the Farmers Home Administration (FHA). During the more than 30 years that the FHA and its predecessor agencies have been in operation, various modifications have broadened the scope of these programs. Originally, loans were made to farmers conducting adequate family farming operations. After several years, this program was broadened to include farmers conducting less than adequate family farming operations. A more recent addition has been the provision of loans to low-income farm families for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes to generate at least a modest increase in their level of living. Other credit programs have also been added to provide assistance to rural people and communities. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Financial Economics Length: 33 Number: 307383 Creation-Date: 1969-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307383 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307383/files/aer160.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307383 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Pesticide Application Equipment Owned by Farmers, 48 States Abstract: Excerpts from the Report: Pesticides are essential to modern agriculture for the effective control of pests and diseases that attack crops and livestock. In recent years, use of pesticides has increased significantly. Nearly every U.S. farmer now uses pesticides, and most own equipment needed to apply them. Equipment for applying pesticides includes devices to dispense insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, miticides, nematocides, rodenticides, soil fumigants, defoliants, and desiccants. The first implements farmers used to apply pesticides were crude, inexpensive, hand-operated devices. Modem equipment is often more complicated and costly as well as more precise, versatile, and easy to handle. The larger units are power-driven. This report discusses the amount, type, cost, and regional distribution of the ownership of pesticide application equipment used by farm operators in 1964. Emphasis is on power-driven sprayers and dusters, and on machine attachments. The report does not include data on equipment to dispense materials used only in home or garden, or disinfectants and medicines for livestock. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 20 Number: 307384 Creation-Date: 1969-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307384 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307384/files/aer161.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307384 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Smith, Edward J. Title: Spanish-Surname Farm Operators in Southern Texas Abstract: Excerpt from the Report: Much of this country's poverty is concentrated in certain geographic areas and among particular ethnic groups. Including those of Spanish ancestry. Several previous studies have examined the situation of the Mexican-Americans and their efforts toward improving their economic and social positions. However, the disadvantaged position of the Mexican-American farm operator, while well known for some time, has received very little research emphasis. The development of an adequate body of information about Mexican-American farm operators is needed as a basis for sound policy decisions with respect to them. This study is intended to help satisfy that need. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 69 Number: 307385 Creation-Date: 1969-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307385 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307385/files/aer162.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307385 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hurst, Robert L. Title: Rural Housing in the Northeast Coastal Plain Area of South Carolina Abstract: Excerpt from the Report: This study of a low-income rural area in the South determines (1) the number and condition of occupied rural housing units in 1966, (2) the changes that have occurred in housing conditions since 1960, and (3) the cost of upgrading the quality of rural housing to various levels of adequacy. Selected for study was a 10-county area of the Northeast Coastal Plain of South Carolina. The area had housing conditions quite similar to those found generally throughout the South in 1960. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics Length: 20 Number: 307386 Creation-Date: 1969-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307386 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307386/files/aer163.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307386 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Emery, Harlan J. Title: Dairy Price Support and Related Programs, 1949-1968 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: Prices received by dairy farmers have been substantially higher since 1949, than they otherwise would have been, as a result of price support purchases of dairy products by Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) and other related program activities. The Agricultural Act of 1948 required the support of milk and butterfat prices at 90 percent of their parity prices during 1949. The price support has been carried out since January 1950 under the Agricultural Act of 1949. This Act requires the Secretary of Agriculture to support the prices to producers for milk and butterfat at such level between 75 and 90 percent of parity as will assure an adequate supply, through loans on, or purchases of, milk and dairy products. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 147 Number: 307387 Creation-Date: 1969-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307387 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307387/files/aer165.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307387 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kampe, Ronald E. Author-Name: Lindamood, William A. Title: Underemployment Estimates by County, United States, 1960 Abstract: The report Preface: In an article by Thomas T. Williams and Robert B. Glasgow in the American Journal of Agricultural Economics, December 1968, a technique developed by Mr. Glasgow for estimating underemployment was presented and applied to 92 State economic areas. This report explains the technique used and includes underemployment estimates for all counties in the United States and a summary analysis of the Nation as a whole. Data from the 1960 Census of Population were used, the most recent available for this particular technique. These estimates provide comparisons of labor force utilization among counties and are useful as a basis for current economic appraisals and policy recommendations. They are being published to satisfy the demand for this type of economic indicator. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 385 Number: 307388 Creation-Date: 1969-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307388 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307388/files/aer166.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307388 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, Helen W. Title: Rural Indian Americans in Poverty Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Financial Economics, Health Economics and Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 31 Number: 307389 Creation-Date: 1969-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307389 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307389/files/aer167.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307389 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Perkinson, Leon B. Title: State and Local Governmental Finances in the North Central States, 1964-65 Abstract: The report Preface: The improvement of public services apparently helps in stimulating economic development in rural areas and in improving the living standards of rural people. Before these services can be improved, however, means must be found to finance the improvements. Decisions about additional financing must be made in the light of present revenues and expenditures. This report is designed to provide basic background information on the finances of State and local governments in the North Central region of the United States. It is our belief that these data will be useful both to research workers and to others who are trying to find ways to improve local services. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Financial Economics, Public Economics Length: 35 Number: 307390 Creation-Date: 1969-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307390 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307390/files/aer168.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307390 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Potential Mechanization in the Flue-Cured Tobacco Industry, With Emphasis on Human Resource Adjustment Abstract: The report Summary: Large numbers of people are still employed in the production, marketing, and processing of flue-cured tobacco in the Southeastern United States. Mechanization and new technology in this industry, and the resulting displacement of workers, could constitute a problem of substantial social and economic proportions unless new employment opportunities are developed. Full mechanization of the tobacco industry, however, is tending to be inhibited by certain environmental forces. Uncertainty about future demand for tobacco products surely influences investment decisions of farmers. Government tobacco programs, which limit acreage and production and restrict leasing and rental arrangements, are largely barriers to the adoption of full-scale mechanization. Also, extensive program changes and rapid mechanization would have important implications for the people involved. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 82 Number: 307391 Creation-Date: 1969-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307391 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307391/files/aer169.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307391 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crecink, John C. Author-Name: Steptoe, Roosevelt Title: Human Resources in the Rural Mississippi Delta: With Emphasis on the Poor Abstract: Excerpts from the report Introduction: The Mississippi Delta extends from the Bootheel area of Missouri to the Red River in Louisiana. The region in this study consists of 43 counties fully in the Delta in four States (Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri) and has often been characterized as containing the largest number of poor people in the United States. The continuing mass outmigration from the Delta to other regions of the United States during the last 30 years makes the poverty problem of the Delta a part of the national poverty that cannot be solved locally or regionally. This study focuses on the identification and estimation of the magnitude of the disadvantaged group in the rural area of the Delta and what might improve their condition. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 84 Number: 307392 Creation-Date: 1970-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307392 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307392/files/aer170.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307392 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Arnould, Richard J. Title: Diversification and Profitability Among Large Food Processing Firms Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: Farmers and numerous legislative and economic groups concerned with agricultural policy have become increasingly aware of the conglomerate acquisitions and internal growth affecting food industries. In recent years, firms in food processing have, through internal and external growth, enlarged their product lines to include more food products and numerous nonfood products from other manufacturing industries. Farmers and consumers have wondered what such changes mean for the firms with which they conduct business and what effect these changes will have on their market relationships with these firms. The specific objectives of this study are to determine: (1) whether any observable relationships existed between the degree of diversification of food processing firms and their performance variables, such as profit rates and margins; (2) the relationship of other structural variables, such as concentration and size of firm, to profit variables; (3) effects of the degree of diversification on the stability of profit rates of food processing firms over time; and (4) the measurement problems associated with product diversification. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, Marketing, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 48 Number: 307393 Creation-Date: 1970-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307393 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307393/files/aer171.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307393 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: HELMS, VERONICA E. Author-Name: COLEMAN-JENSEN, ALISHA Author-Name: GRAY, REGINA Author-Name: BRUCKER, DEBRA L. Title: Household Food Insecurity and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Federal Housing Assistance Abstract: The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) provides housing rental assistance to more than 4.5 million low-income households. Using health survey data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) linked to Federal housing administrative data, household food insecurity was assessed among adults receiving housing assistance at the time of their NHIS interview during 2011 and 2012 (n=2,089). Food-insecure households had difficulty at times providing adequate food for all their members due to limited resources. Among NHIS adult respondents receiving HUD assistance, 37.2 percent reported household food insecurity (including low and very low food security), while 19.1 percent experienced very low food security, the more severe range of food insecurity characterized by disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake. Analyses revealed that adults in the Housing Choice Voucher program were significantly more likely to report household food insecurity than adults in other HUD programs (Public Housing and Multifamily Housing), net of other characteristics. Although housing assistance programs are designed to free financial resources associated with housing cost burden, household food insecurity is still prominent among low-income, HUD-assisted adults. Keywords: Food Security and Poverty Length: 37 Number: 307395 Creation-Date: 2020-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307395 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307395/files/USDA%20Household%20Food%20Insecurity%20and%20U.S.%20Department%20of%20Housing%20and%20Urban%20Development%20Federal%20Housing%20Assistance.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307395 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rizek, Robert L. Author-Name: Rockwell, George R Title: Household Consumption Patterns for Meat and Poultry, Spring 1965 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Substantial growth in consumption of beef and broilers, declines in consumption of other red meats, and various changes in consumption patterns by class of households--these are the general indications from a comparison of data from two surveys, one in the spring of 1955 and one in the spring of 1965. The 1965 information arises from the spring phase of the 1965-66 Household Food Consumption Survey, which provides much information about food consumption at home. Both the recent and 1955 surveys exclude the quantities of food consumed away from home and institutional eating, but they do include the money value of food consumed away from home. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 36 Number: 307396 Creation-Date: 1970-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307396 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307396/files/aer173.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307396 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElveen, Jackson V. Title: Rural Industrialization in the Southeast Coastal Plain: Case Study of a New Brick Factory in Summerville, S.C. Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: In its first year of operation -- 1963 -- a new brick factory in Dorchester County, S.C., provided jobs for 24 county residents and for one from an adjoining county. The plant provided jobs for those most needing them: poor, unskilled rural male laborers, who had been working seasonally at lower pay in farm, construction, and sawmill jobs. Operation of the factory also generated 10 more business- and consumer-linked jobs: service and repair of machinery, advertising, and sales of clay and packing and office supplies. Most of these jobs were in a four-county area around Charleston, S.C. The study indicates that there are opportunities for constructing various types of factories in the three rural counties to serve Charleston. These factories would provide jobs for the rural poor who are being forced out of agriculture and forestry, and help upgrade their work skills. Educational levels also need improvement Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 18 Number: 307397 Creation-Date: 1970-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307397 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307397/files/aer174.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307397 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nikolitch, Radoje Title: Our 31,000 Largest Farms Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: This report is based mainly on information shown in a special tabulation of 1964 Census of Agriculture data for farms with annual sales of $100,000 or more. The tabulation was obtained from the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce. This tabulation permits us, for the first time, to present comprehensive national and regional information on the largest farms, by sales group, including farms with annual sales of $1 million or more. These are the latest and only data available nationwide on the largest farms. The data were not available until 1969, and no new data are expected for several years to come. Administrators, legislators, and the general public have expressed widespread interest and concern with respect to large-scale farms. This report will provide information that should help put issues concerning these farms into proper perspective, especially as concerns their importance in the future organizational structure of agriculture. Keywords: Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 69 Number: 307398 Creation-Date: 1970-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307398 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307398/files/aer175.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307398 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McCoy, John L. Title: Rural Poverty in Three Southern Regions: Mississippi Delta, Ozarks, Southeast Coastal Plain Abstract: Excerpts from the report Highlights: The Mississippi Delta had the highest incidence of severe and persistent rural poverty (as defined in the report), closely followed by South Carolina. A fourth of the households surveyed in these regions were seriously deprived. About a 20th of Ozark households were equally deprived. Three-fourths of poverty problems in the areas were associated with nonparticipation in the labor force, farm laborer occupations, and operation of small subsistence farms. These factors were associated with 84 percent of Ozarks poverty and 76 percent of South Carolina poverty. The nonworking population accounted for a large share of poverty in each area because of old age, disability, or lack of job opportunities for their occupational level. Among those employed at the time of the surveys, the Delta farm laborer group constituted a major economic problem. In the Ozarks, older retired people made up most of the poor. South Carolina operators of small farms constituted as great a problem as those not working. Farm tenure arrangements varied among the poor. In South Carolina, the predominant type of arrangement was sharecropping. In the Ozarks, 85 percent of poor farmers owned their land. In the Delta, poverty was most often found among the farm labor population; relatively little poverty occurred among farmers. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Food Security and Poverty Length: 44 Number: 307399 Creation-Date: 1970-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307399 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307399/files/aer176.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307399 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davis, Velmar W. Author-Name: Fox, Austin S. Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert P. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Title: Economic Consequences of Restricting the Use of Organochlorine Insecticides on Cotton, Corn, Peanuts, and Tobacco Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: This report presents estimates of the economic consequences of restricting the use of organochlorine insecticides on selected crops in the United States. Farmers are the primary focus. But the effects of such action would extend to the pesticide industry, consumers, and the total environment. Restriction is viewed as a means of reducing, not banning, the use of organochlorines by farmers. It includes the substitution of other insecticides to the maximum that would still provide effective control with known technology and maintain production at reasonable costs. The estimates assume no substantial changes in insect infestations. Data on farm use of insecticides for 1966, the most recent available, are the foundation for the analysis. All quantities of insecticides are expressed in pounds of active chemical ingredients. The terms organochlorines, organophosphorus compounds, and carbamates refer to insecticides only. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics Length: 61 Number: 307400 Creation-Date: 1970-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307400 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307400/files/aer178.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307400 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Author-Name: Blake, Helen Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert Author-Name: Fox, Austin Title: Quantities of Pesticides Used by Farmers in 1966 Abstract: This report provides information on quantities of pesticides used by U.S. farmers in 1966, and comparisons with similar 1964 data. Pesticides included are insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, miticides, rodenticides, fumigants, growth regulators, and defoliants and desiccants. Information is presented on leading products such as DDT, toxaphene, and 2,4-D. Approximately 90 different products or groups of products are included. The study is based on a survey of about 9,600 farmers throughout the 48 contiguous States. Survey data were expanded to represent regional and U.S. pesticide usage for selected crop, livestock, and other purposes. Findings show that farmers used just over 350 million pounds of pesticides in 1966 (exclusive of sulfur and petroleum). This was a 10-percent increase over 1964. Farm pesticides in 1966 including sulfur and petroleum were valued at $561 million in that year. Crops accounted for over 90 percent of all pesticides used by farmers in 1966. Insecticides were the major pesticide products, with farm use amounting to 149 million pounds. Ninety-two percent of the insecticides were used on crops and nearly half of these, on cotton. Farmers used 115 million pounds of herbicides in 1966, up 37 percent over 1964. Corn was the major recipient of herbicide products, accounting for over 40 percent of those used on crops. Farm use of fungicides and fumigants each amounted to 30 million pounds in 1966. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 70 Number: 307401 Creation-Date: 1970-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307401 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307401/files/aer179.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307401 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: An Economic Analysis of the Iowa Rural Renewal Area Abstract: Economic trends in the 1960's in the Iowa rural renewal area, Appanoose and Monroe Counties, show that the level of economic activity increased in the area but was clearly below the level for the State. Economic trends suggest that to provide economic opportunities in the area, by 1980, comparable to those available, on the average, to all residents of Iowa, the annual rate of growth in the area in the 1970's must be double the rate of the 1960's. New approaches are required to double the annual rate of growth. These include: (1) increases in employment in the manufacturing sectors not related to agriculture, and (2) comprehensive planning at the multicounty level. These plans should include ways to expand employment and improve such facilities and services as housing, water supplies, sewage disposal facilities, and medical and educational services. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 61 Number: 307402 Creation-Date: 1970-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307402 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307402/files/aer181.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307402 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoover, Herbert Author-Name: Green, Bernal L. Title: Human Resources in the Ozarks Region, With Emphasis on the Poor Abstract: This report is one in a series on the socioeconomic condition of rural people within selected areas of the United States. The rural parts of the Ozarks region of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma comprise the study area for this report, and 1,413 sample household heads provided information. Of these households, 25 percent were found to be economically deprived or seriously deprived. Another 28 percent were classified as marginal. Thus, current public and private efforts to improve economic welfare of Ozarks residents seems warranted on the basis of these data. However, efforts to improve income through rural industrialization may not be fully effective because advanced age is a fact for one-third to one-half of the household heads. These persons are at a disadvantage compared with younger in-migrants, for example, in competing for new jobs. Other disadvantages found in the region were that most deprived families had at least two clearly poverty-linked characteristics: advanced age, female head of household, low educational attainment, farm residence, and physical disabilities. Having any one of these characteristics tended to make a family deprived, and the more of them a family had, the more deprived it was. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital Length: 56 Number: 307403 Creation-Date: 1970-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307403 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307403/files/aer182.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307403 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bluestone, Herman Title: Focus for Area Development Analysis: Urban Orientation of Counties Abstract: The orientation of counties to metropolitan systems and urban centers is identified by population density and percentage of population urban. This analytical framework differentiates six kinds of counties, ranging from most urban-oriented, group 1, to least urban-oriented, group 6. With this framework, it can be seen that the economic well-being of county residents varies with the urban orientation of their county. Between 1950 and 1960, county population growth also varied with urban orientation. But in the following 6 years (1960-66), population growth slowed considerably in group 1 counties and moderately in groups 2 and 3, but accelerated in groups 4 and 5. In group 6, the decline was arrested. The quickening growth in the less urban-oriented counties promises to help bring prosperity to many areas that were formerly cut off from the mainstream of American economic life. But many of the people who live in these areas are elderly and disabled or lack the education, training, and experience to compete effectively in urban labor markets. Consequently, these people would benefit from training programs and other programs to improve their nutrition, health care, and education. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Land Economics/Use Length: 25 Number: 307404 Creation-Date: 1970-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307404 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307404/files/aer183.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307404 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herr, William McD. Title: Characteristics of New Borrowers Obtaining Farm Ownership Loans from the Farmers Home Administration, Fiscal 1966 Abstract: The characteristics of those obtaining farm ownership loans from the Farmers Home Administration did not change much after the loan program began to expand in 1962. FO borrowers, as before, were more likely to be tenants, to be younger, and to have smaller farm businesses and lower equities than farmers as a whole. Nevertheless, they were not those least likely to develop viable farms. FO loans mainly went to refinance debts or buy farms in the North and West. In the South loans went mainly for enlarging farms but refinancing debts was also important. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Financial Economics Length: 22 Number: 307405 Creation-Date: 1970-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307405 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307405/files/aer184.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307405 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bryan, C. Hobson Author-Name: Bertrand, Alvin Lee Title: Propensity for Change Among the Rural Poor in the Mississippi Delta: A Study of the Roots of Social Mobility Abstract: This study determines the characteristics of poor family heads in rural areas of the Mississippi Delta Region who have high potential for breaking out of poverty. Potential for moving out of poverty was measured by the degree of expressed willingness of a household head to take action for positive change in his circumstances. The data were obtained from a randomized, block sample of rural inhabitants in the Delta areas of Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The 1,249 respondents constituted an approximate 1 percent sample of the region. Household heads with high propensity for change tended to be in the younger age groups, married, heads of smaller households, Negro, and have a comparatively high level of education. Generally similar factors influence change potential among the relatively affluent in the Delta. Lower rates of social participation and higher rates of fatalism were found to characterize the rural Impoverished when they were compared with the relatively affluent individuals in the Delta. However, contrary to prevailing assumptions, neither of these characteristics was related to propensity for change. Thus, social participation and fatalism variables in no way affect individuals’ potential for upward social mobility. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 26 Number: 307406 Creation-Date: 1970-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307406 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307406/files/aer185.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307406 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gustafson, Ronald A. Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Title: Cattle Feeding in the United States Abstract: This report describes the beef cattle industry and traces some recent trends in its makeup, it centers mainly on the cattle-feeding phase of the industry, but also considers feeder cattle and marketing. Beef consumption is high and still rising. Beef now accounts for about two-thirds of all red meat consumed in the United States. Continuation of present per capita trends coupled with increasing population will call for a third more beef by 1980. However, the supply of feeder cattle may become a limiting factor. Past increases have come from saving more calves as well as from larger numbers. Nearly all available calves are now used for feeders. Hence, further supplies will have to come from expanding beef cow numbers. Large-scale feedlots (those with 1,000 or more head capacity) accounted for only 1 percent of all feedlots in 1968, but they handled nearly half of all fed cattle. Farmer feedlots handled the others. Nearly all regions produce some fed cattle, but the leading cattle feeding areas are in the Corn Belt, the Northern Plains, the High Plains, and California. Large-scale commercial feedlots operate under a variety of arrangements in addition to feeding their own cattle. Some do custom or contract feeding. Some are tied into cooperatives, packing plants, or cattle ranches. Financing the physical plant for feeding cattle may run from a few thousand dollars to several million. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 99 Number: 307407 Creation-Date: 1970-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307407 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307407/files/aer186.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307407 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grant, Warren R. Author-Name: Moore, Donald S. Title: Alternative Government Rice Programs: An Economic Evaluation Abstract: A model designed to indicate the effects of alternative Government rice programs gave an inelastic domestic demand (-.14) and an elastic export demand (-1.57) for U.S. rice in 1970. With no price change, about 98 percent of the production from any increase in rice allotments would have to be exported. Changing the support price influences domestic consumption in the opposite direction of the price change, but not proportional to the price change. Selection of the best of three types of programs examined (two-price plan, direct payment plan, and current program) must depend on determining who, consumer or taxpayer, should bear the costs of the program. With no Government rice programs, an equilibrium price of $3.40 and production of 138.7 million hundredweight would result. The rice industry with monopoly control of distribution could market the same output at a much higher price ($6.04) by using price discrimination between the domestic and export markets. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 60 Number: 307408 Creation-Date: 1970-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307408 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307408/files/aer187.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307408 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lasley, Floyd A. Author-Name: Shaw, Charles N. Title: Economic Aspects of Dairying in the Northeast Abstract: About 22 percent of the nation's milk is produced by farmers in the Northeast, the 12-State area from Maine through Virginia. Although oriented toward the fluid milk market, these markets have carried large volumes of reserve supplies which are used in manufactured dairy products. Changes in the population, in the level of milk production, and the relative production of different areas result in marked adjustments in the utilization of milk in different products. Changes in sales and utilization are compared with production in the area in 1960, with total milk production in the area, and presented as a percentage of the total Northeast and U.S. production. Counties were described according to certain characteristics affecting milk production and utilization. The counties were then grouped according to similarities and compared. Increasing population and falling milk production near metropolitan areas combine to increase the need for shipping milk into these population centers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 58 Number: 307409 Creation-Date: 1970-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307409 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307409/files/aer188.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307409 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crecink, John C. Title: Rural Industrialization: Case Study of a Tissue Paper Mill in Pickens, Miss. Abstract: This report analyzes the shortrun economic impact of a tissue paper mill on Pickens, Miss., a town of under 1,000 in a depressed rural area with a predominance of poor Negroes. The tissue mill began in a building formerly occupied by a North Carolina furniture manufacturer. Initial financing came from the Area Redevelopment Administration, local and State organizations, and private industry. Failure of the operation was attributed to lack of skilled employees, frequent breakdowns of secondhand machinery, variability in the quality of wet pulp, and an inadequately developed market. After foreclosure by the Small Business Administration, the plant was leased to another company to produce carbonizing paper used by that company. The case raises many questions about the development of such a depressed rural area. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 17 Number: 307410 Creation-Date: 1970-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307410 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307410/files/aer189.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307410 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reinsel, Robert D. Author-Name: Johnson, Bruce Title: Farm Tenure and Cash Rents in the United States Abstract: Fifty-five percent of the 392 million acres of farmland rented in 1964 were rented for cash. Between 1961 and 1968, gross cash rents per acre increased at a slower rate than land values; landlord expenditures per acre also increased. Thus, net rents moved up even more slowly than gross rents and rent-to-value ratios declined. Cash renting is increasing in the United States, in part because of increased renting by part owners, who tend to use cash leases more frequently than do full tenants. The increase in farm size and capital needs that is associated with a continuing trend toward part ownership and what appears to be a general shift from share renting implies a greater reliance on cash renting in the future. The report also describes methodology used in determining the acreage of cash-rented land. Keywords: Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital, Land Economics/Use Length: 35 Number: 307411 Creation-Date: 1970-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307411 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307411/files/aer190.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307411 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Garrison, Charles B. Title: The Impact of New Industry on Local Government Finances in Five Small Towns in Kentucky Abstract: The establishment of new manufacturing plants in five towns in Kentucky had a negative net fiscal impact on most local governmental units during 1958-63, Inmost of the counties studied, the direct effect of locating the new manufacturing plants in the small towns was to increase the costs of government for the School district and often the town without increasing the revenue. The increases were typically small, however. Also, a comparison of the study counties with a group of comparable counties that had no new industry added during the study period showed no significant differences between the two groups of counties in changes in local governmental revenue or expenditures due to any secondary effects of new industry in the study counties. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 31 Number: 307412 Creation-Date: 1970-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307412 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307412/files/aer191.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307412 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Blake, Helen T. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert P. Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Author-Name: Fox, Austin S. Title: Farmers' Pesticide Expenditures in 1966 Abstract: This report provides information on pesticide expenditures by U.S. farmers in 1966 and some comparisons with 1964. Data are based on a survey conducted in 1967 to measure pesticide use by farmers in 1966. Expenditures for pesticides in crop and livestock production and for other purposes are examined. Expenditures are also reported by type of pesticide, including fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, and several others. The study is based on a survey of about 9,600 farmers throughout the United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii. Survey data were expanded to represent regional and U.S. expenditures for pest control on farms. Findings show that farmers' total pesticide expenditures were $561 million in 1966, with almost $506 million spent for crop protection alone. Herbicides were 48 percent of total crop pesticide expenditures, insecticides were more than 38 percent, and fungicides were close to 7 percent. Total pesticide expenditures for crop production in 1966 exceeded those in 1964 by 17 percent. The total cost for pesticides used on livestock and their surroundings was over $29 million, about the same as in 1964. Pesticide costs for other farm uses amounted to $26 million. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 50 Number: 307413 Creation-Date: 1970-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307413 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307413/files/aer192.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307413 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Freeman, Robert E. Title: Rural Housing: Trends and Prospects Abstract: The quality of rural housing has improved markedly since World War II; from 38 percent standard in 1950 to 67 percent in 1960 and nearly 80 percent in 1968. Rural housing has shared in the general upgrading of housing which resulted from the postwar building boom. New construction and renovation has exceeded new household formations by a wide enough margin to permit a general shifting up and abandonment or demolition of the poorest units. Rural America however, still had higher percentages of substandard housing than did urban areas in 1968: 17.1 percent of nonmetropolitan housing was substandard compared, with 5.7 percent in the central cities of the SMSA's and 4.0 percent outside the central cities of the SMSA’s. The substandard rural housing is heavily concentrated in the southeastern States. The analysis emphasizes rural aspects of the private sector construction industry, mobile homes, the financing of housing, government programs, and projections. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 42 Number: 307414 Creation-Date: 1970-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307414 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307414/files/aer193.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307414 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fox, Austin S. Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert P. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Author-Name: Holstun, John T., Jr. Author-Name: Klingman, Dayton L. Title: Restricting the Use of Phenoxy Herbicides: Costs to Farmers Abstract: Assuming that current levels of farm production are to be maintained, restricting the farm use of phenoxy herbicides would increase U.S. farmers direct production costs about $290 million. In addition, about 20 million more hours of family labor would be used. Net reductions in farm income would total $107 million for corn, $51 million for wheat, $8 million for rice, $28 million for other small grain, $11 million for sorghum, $33 million for pasture, $36 million for rangeland, and $16 million for other crops on which the phenoxys were used in 1966. The estimates were determined for each of the above crops by partial budgeting using cross-sectional data from the ERS Pesticide and General Farm Survey, 1966; Agricultural Statistics, 1968; and from Agricultural Research Service weed scientists. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 39 Number: 307415 Creation-Date: 1970-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307415 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307415/files/aer194.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307415 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Goodsell, Wylie D. Title: Costs and Returns: Migratory-Sheep Operations, Utah-Nevada, 1960-69 Abstract: Returns moved up substantially in the last 7 years on migratory-sheep ranches in the Utah-Nevada study area, the top sheep- and wool-producing area of its kind in the United States. Generally, higher prices received for lambs, improved range conditions, increased market weights of lambs, and greater output per ranch were responsible for these favorable returns. Despite these economic advances, migratory-sheep ranchers look to the future with caution; they are primarily concerned about wool prices, availability of good herders, and the continued opportunity to graze the public domain. Keywords: Farm Management, Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 34 Number: 307416 Creation-Date: 1971-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307416 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307416/files/aer195.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307416 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cummins, David E. Title: Effect of Urban Expansion on Dairying in the Lake States, 1949-69 Abstract: Census of Agriculture data for selected years during 1949-64 indicate that longrun changes in Lake States dairying are related importantly to economic forces whose geographic impacts vary considerably. In the economic setting typified by large, expanding metropolitan areas, dairying is now declining in importance. In contrast, dairying is becoming more important beyond the sphere of urban-industrial expansion--over 30 miles from metropolitan areas. The net consequences over time of these changes are shifts from the metropolitan areas in the geographic distributions of the number of milk producers, milk cow numbers, and aggregate milk production. Keywords: Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 59 Number: 307417 Creation-Date: 1970-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307417 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307417/files/aer196.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307417 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Title: A History of Sugar Marketing Abstract: The present U.S. system of regulating the production, importation, and marketing of sugar is an outgrowth of Government regulation of the sugar trade dating from Colonial times. Similar systems have developed in most other countries, particularly those which import sugar. The U.S. Sugar Quota System has benefited domestic sugar producers by providing stable prices at favorable levels. These prices also have encouraged the production and use of substitute sweeteners, particularly corn sirup and dextrose in certain industries. However, sugar is, by far, the most widely used sweetener in the U.S. and is likely to retain this position. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 132 Number: 307418 Creation-Date: 1971-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307418 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307418/files/aer197.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307418 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E., Jr. Title: Price Differentials for Complete Feeds, Supplements, and Shelled Corn: A Regression Analysis Abstract: Farm expenditures for feed increased substantially between 1960 and 1969. Their proportion of total production expenses fluctuated between 17 and 21 percent. The importance of feed expenditures encourages a continuing farm interest in feed prices and regional price differences. An explanatory model was developed. The Pesticide and General Farm Survey, 1966-67, was adopted as a means for obtaining the information necessary to apply the model. The purpose of the model was to explain different levels of prices paid for complete feeds, specified supplements, and shelled corn. Variation in the independent variables of the model was associated with 16 to 54 percent of the total price variance, depending upon the product. The most consistent variables were protein content and bulk purchasing. Each added percentage of protein increased price from 3 cents to 20 cents per hundredweight. Bulk purchasing decreased price from 6 cents to 20 cents per cwt. Prior to the deductions of discounts, prices reported by respondents listing discounts, averaged higher than the prices reported by respondents not reporting discounts received. Large-scale operations reported lower prices than the smaller sized firms. The variation in average prices reported by source of purchase was sufficiently great so that no single source could be cited as always charging the lowest prices. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 37 Number: 307435 Creation-Date: 1971-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307435 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307435/files/aer198.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307435 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fox, Austin S. Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert P. Author-Name: Holstun, John T., Jr. Author-Name: Klingman, Dayton L. Title: Restricting the Use of 2, 4, 5-T: Costs to Domestic Users Abstract: About 3.4 million acres of farmland and 4.5 million acres of nonfarmland were treated with an estimated 8.9 million pounds of the phenoxy herbicide 2, 4, 5-T in 1969. If 2, 4, 5-T were restricted, the economic costs to domestic users would have been $52 million in 1969, providing all other herbicides could still be used. However, costs would have increased to $172 million if other phenoxy herbicides were also prohibited. Additional costs to replace 2, 4, 5-T, if other phenoxys could have been used as alternatives, were estimated at $32 million for farmers and $20 million for other domestic users (public utility companies. Government agencies, homeowners, recreation, and timber industries). Without other phenoxys, additional costs would have increased to $44 million for farmers and to $128 million for nonfarm users. For farmers, the major land areas affected would be pasture and rangeland; for nonfarm users, rights-of-way maintenance would be most affected. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 28 Number: 307436 Creation-Date: 1971-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307436 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307436/files/aer199.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307436 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McElveen, Jackson V. Author-Name: Dillman, Buddy L. Title: A Profile of the Rural Poor in the Coastal Plain of Northeastern South Carolina Abstract: This report presents a profile of poverty groups, based on characteristics of household heads, which could be useful in formulating and evaluating assistance programs for the poor. Rural households in the Coastal Plain of Northeastern South Carolina were grouped into five mutually exclusive categories determined by the age, disability, and sex of the household head: (1) Households with heads 65 years of age and older. (2) Households with disabled heads less than 65 years of age. (3) Households with able-bodied male heads 45-64 years of age. (4) Households with able-bodied male heads less than 45 years of age. (5) Households with able-bodied female heads less than 65 years of age. The resulting categories of the poor were examined for purposes of evaluating their needs and determining their potential for income improvement through self-help programs of public assistance. Half of the poor households, containing two-thirds of all income-deprived youth in the study area, were headed by able-bodied, working males. Assistance programs designed to lessen the impact of poverty among rural youth must be oriented to this target group. Most heads, particularly the younger ones, were willing to train, change jobs, and move from the area, if necessary, to get better pay. The remaining productive years of this group warrants public investment to improve their skills and other income producing resources. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital Length: 80 Number: 307437 Creation-Date: 1971-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307437 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307437/files/aer202.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307437 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mikesell, James J. Title: Selected Characteristics of Open Country Mobile Home Residents: East North Central States, 1967 Abstract: A sample of mobile home residents in the East North Central States showed that mobile homes provided housing for a segment of the population which was not typical of the region. The mobile home household heads were younger--34 years or younger--more than twice as often. Families living in mobile homes were smaller than other families in the sample area. Mobile home residents generally had less college education. Mobile home households did have lower levels of income. Compared with a national sample of recent mobile home purchasers, such households in this area were found to have fewer young couples without children and more residents of retirement age. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics Length: 11 Number: 307438 Creation-Date: 1971-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307438 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307438/files/aer203.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307438 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Konyha, Marvin E. Title: Rural Poor Who Could Benefit from Job Retraining in the East North Central States Abstract: Low-income status was the lot of 26 percent of open-country residents over 15 years of age in the East North Central States, a 1967 sample survey showed. Many were unprepared to compete in today's labor market. Of those with low income, 37 percent had no economic potential because of age (over 65) or disability, and needed some form of income maintenance to alleviate poverty. Of those considered to have economic potential, 20 percent could expect to escape poverty through job retraining. If two or more members of a consumer unit (an individual or a family) were retrained, as many as 25 percent of the consumer units might escape poverty. Fewer than half of those potentially able to escape poverty were interested in retraining, which challenges retraining program administrators to develop innovative training delivery systems. Very few respondents had potential for becoming successful farmers. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital Length: 41 Number: 307439 Creation-Date: 1971-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307439 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307439/files/aer204.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307439 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edwards, Clark Author-Name: Coltrane, Robert Author-Name: Daberkow, Stan Title: Regional Variations in Economic Growth and Development with Emphasis on Rural Areas Abstract: Problems associated with rural economic development, involving maldistributions of population, income, and employment, suggest the need for statistical indicators of rural area growth and development. Development problems are not usually aligned geographically with the boundaries of a city, county, or State. Multicounty units of observation are considered useful for descriptive, analytical, and policy implication purposes. Four hundred and eighty-nine multicounty trading areas, which include all counties in the 48 contiguous States, were aggregated into five urban-orientation groups. The level of development of an area was found to be correlated with urban orientation. However, the sparsely settled rural areas of the Great Plains, on average, have attained a slightly higher level of economic development than the more densely settled rural areas of the Southeast. Population and employment growth rates are independent of urban orientation or the level of economic development. Economic development policies need to differ for rural areas compared with urban areas and for areas with a higher level of development compared with those with lower levels of development. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 193 Number: 307440 Creation-Date: 1971-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307440 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307440/files/aer205.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307440 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Pricing Milk and Dairy Products -- Principles, Practices, and Problems Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: An understanding of milk and daily product pricing—how prices are made and the competitive environment in which they are formed—is essential in considering policy issues. This report discusses the nature of the pricing process in the U.S. dairy industry, and analyzes developments which have resulted in its modification. It examines policy issues in pricing dairy products in light of these changes, and identifies emerging problems. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 64 Number: 307441 Creation-Date: 1971-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307441 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307441/files/aer207.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307441 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fitzwilliams, Jeannette Title: Open-Country Poverty in a Relatively Affluent Area -- The East North Central States Abstract: Poverty among open-country households in the East North Central States--11 percent--was slightly above incidence found among U.S. whites in general. Incidence of poverty was greatest among the aged, disabled, and small farmers of all ages who made farming their major source of earnings. Eighty-seven percent of the respondent households in this 1967 survey had earnings. Most respondents were nonfarmers. Although 42 percent received some income from a farm, only 12 percent got the major portion of their earnings from this source. Seventy-two percent of poor households with heads under age 45, and 57 percent of those with heads aged 45-64 reported no income other than earnings, interest, or dividends. Even more received no welfare payments. In this area, where two-fifths of all houses were built before 1901, substandard housing was prevalent among the poor. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital Length: 62 Number: 307442 Creation-Date: 1971-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307442 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307442/files/aer208.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307442 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coffman, George W. Title: Corporations with Farming Operations Abstract: In 1968, some 13,300 farming corporations accounted for 1 percent of all commercial farms and operated 7 percent of the farmland. California and Florida had about one-fifth of the total number and some of the largest corporate farming operations. Nearly two-thirds of farming corporations were family owned and controlled. Since farming corporations tend to be closely held, the owners were usually involved in management. However, only one-third of the 12 average employees were either stockholders or stockholder relatives. Farming was the only business activity for the two-thirds of the corporations. Others had farm-related business and nonfarm-related business. The farm product sales of corporations was about $3.3 billion or 8 percent of total sales from all farms in 1967. Keywords: Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital Length: 50 Number: 307443 Creation-Date: 1971-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307443 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307443/files/aer209.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307443 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Freund, William H. Title: Lunch Programs in the Nation's Schools Abstract: Noontime food services were provided in about 75 percent of the Nation’s 105,000 public and private elementary and secondary schools during a survey in March 1968. Most of these schools with food service participated in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP). Schools with food service had 41 million pupils enrolled--over 80 percent of the estimated 50.7 million pupils in all schools. Nearly 20 million pupils ate plate lunches daily. The availability of food service will increase in the future, but not as rapidly as in the past. Most of this gain will probably be within the NSLP. Impetus for increased pupil participation and availability of food service will be provided through new eligibility requirements for free lunches in the NSLP and additional funding to implement food services. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 46 Number: 307444 Creation-Date: 1971-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307444 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307444/files/aer210.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307444 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Spurlock, Hughes H. Title: Rural Homeowners' Use of Home Mortgage Credit in the Ozark Region, 1966 Abstract: Of the sample of rural homeowners in the Ozark Region in 1966, less than half had ever mortgaged their property. However, those who had mortgaged occupied significantly higher quality housing than those who had not. The trend in the region is toward greater use of credit to finance home purchases. The study strongly indicates that rural home buyers have limited access to long-term, low-equity, amortized loans. Most loans were made by local banks, individuals, and a wide assortment of minor lenders; rural lending activity of savings and loan associations and life insurance companies was limited. Very little evidence was found that conventional lenders bring about inflows of home mortgage credit by initiating Government-backed mortgages for sale to Government agencies or major purchasers of home mortgages. Half of all loans were for less than $5,500. The higher the income and the more years of schooling a household head had the more likely he was to obtain a desirable type of home mortgage credit loan. Age of household head also affected desire and ability to get credit. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics Length: 36 Number: 307445 Creation-Date: 1971-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307445 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307445/files/aer211.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307445 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Strickland, P. L. Author-Name: Brown, W. H. Author-Name: McArthur, W. C. Author-Name: Pawson, W. W. Title: Cotton Production and Farm Income Estimates under Selected Alternative Farm Programs Abstract: Alternative farm programs for cotton were examined for their effect on acreage and production of cotton and other crops in the Cotton Belt, farm income there, and Government costs. A moderate reduction in the market price of cotton would have little effect on production of cotton or other crops if support payments were made as in 1969. If cotton support payments and marketing quotas were removed, cotton acreage would be reduced 18 to 50 percent below estimates based on a continuation of the 1969 farm program, depending on the price for cotton. Acreage of feed grains, wheat, and soybeans would increase. Government costs would be greatly reduced, but farm income over variable costs would decline 22 to 31 percent. Increasing support payments would increase cotton production. With no production restrictions, and with support payments at 10 to 14 cents per pound on 8 million acres, approximately the same quantity of cotton would be produced as with a continuation of the 1969 program, but at substantially lower Government costs. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 39 Number: 307446 Creation-Date: 1971-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307446 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307446/files/aer212.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307446 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Looney, Zolon M. Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Title: Economic Models for Cotton Ginning Abstract: As plant size increases, operating costs per bale decline, revealing economies of scale in ginning throughout the range of gin sizes studied. This and other findings were noted in an analysis of capital investment requirements and operating costs for 10 ginning models ranging in hourly rated capacities from 6 to 36 bales. Seed cotton assembly, traditionally a producer- borne cost, could be an obstacle to the successful establishment and operation of a 36-bale gin--which was determined to be the optimal size--because of the greater hauling distances involved. The analysis shows, however, that with a uniform area ginning charge and other seemingly realistic assumptions, a 36-bale gin could either absorb the assembly cost or take over the assembly function completely and still compete favorably with smaller plants able to furnish only the ginning service. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 53 Number: 307447 Creation-Date: 1971-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307447 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307447/files/aer214.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307447 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Author-Name: Kyle, Leonard R. Title: Midwestern Corn Farms Economic Status and the Potential for Large and Family-Sized Units Abstract: Buying and selling advantages are greater than internal economies for large versus family-sized Midwestern corn farms. Rates of return on investment both before and after income tax costs are considered are greater for the large operations because of (1) economies of size, (2) use of financial leverage, and (3) activities, such as those of purchase and sales agents, that enhance buying and selling advantages. Large units produce a small percentage of total U.S. com. Family-sized units will probably be the most important units in Midwestern com production for some time because of their present large number and the difficulty of establishing new large units. Most of the large units of the future will probably evolve from present family-sized units with aggressive growth strategies. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 59 Number: 307448 Creation-Date: 1971-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307448 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307448/files/aer216.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307448 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Holmes, O. Wendell Title: A Profile of Disabled Household Heads and Spouses in Rural Areas of the Ozarks Region Abstract: This report is a sequel to Human Resources in the Ozarks Region...With Emphasis on the Poor, published in May 1970 as Agricultural Economic Report No. 182. Prepared by the Economic Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), in cooperation with the Agricultural Experiment Stations at the Universities of Arkansas and Missouri, AER 182 examined the socioeconomic conditions of rural people in the Ozarks region of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. In the sample of 1,413 household heads in that study, 31 percent or 439 heads, reported total or partial disabilities. The current report describes and analyzes these 439 heads and their households. Of these households, 41 percent were in poverty. Household heads' incomes were small because many were unable to hold regular jobs and most heads were of advanced age. They generally had low skills and very few had completed high school. Nearly 44 percent of those who had jobs were farmers. Medical expenses in households with disabled heads were quite high and only 70 percent of them had any health insurance. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Food Security and Poverty, Health Economics and Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 50 Number: 307449 Creation-Date: 1971-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307449 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307449/files/aer217.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307449 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edwards, Clark Author-Name: De Pass, Rudolph Title: Rural-Urban Population, Income, and Employment: A Simulation of Alternative Futures Abstract: Several simulations of population, income, and employment in rural and urban America during 1970-2000 were made based on alternative assumptions. The assumptions entailed implementation of certain policies that might effect a more equal rural-urban balance by the year 2000, in addition to a continuation of current trends. If basic trends continue, rural outmigration would probably stop or reverse itself shortly after the year 2000, primarily because the gap between the incomes of rural and urban workers would have gradually closed. But the employment-population ratio in rural areas would still be below that in urban areas; hence, overall rural economic growth would still be lower. Policies to increase job opportunities and labor productivity in rural areas were judged to show more promise as development strategies than were policies to reduce the natural rate of population increase or limit outmigration. For per capita incomes and employment-population ratios in rural and urban America to be equal in the year 2000, about 8.8 million more new jobs than are expected from current trends would be needed in rural areas. Of these, 3.7 million would be transfers of jobs that would have been located in urban areas under present trends; the remaining 5.1 million jobs would have to be created to more fully utilize the underemployed rural labor force. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 43 Number: 307450 Creation-Date: 1971-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307450 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307450/files/aer218.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307450 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Author-Name: Kuzmicky, Donald D. Author-Name: Kohler, George O. Title: Wheat Millfeeds in Livestock Rations: An Economic Analysis Abstract: Wheat millfeeds are economically most important in high-protein dairy and beef cattle supplements and in poultry rations with metabolizable energy requirements of less than 1,300 kilocalories per pound of ration. Economic analysis suggests that the market undervalues wheat millfeeds in dairy and beef cattle supplements. Also, if the biological availability of the naturally occurring nutrients in millfeeds could be improved, their value in high-energy poultry and swine rations would be increased. To create and maintain a market demand for improved millfeeds would require adoption and enforcement of nutritional standards for these products and a concerted promotional and educational campaign to convince potential users of their worth. These conclusions are based on an economic evaluation of wheat millfeeds in a variety of livestock rations in four different market locations and time periods. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 42 Number: 307451 Creation-Date: 1972-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307451 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307451/files/aer219.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307451 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Feaster, J. Gerald Title: Impact of the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program on Low-Income Families: An Indepth Analysis Abstract: About 184,000 low-income families participated in the Extension Service's Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) prior to October 1969. A national sample of 10,500 showed that family incomes were very low--less than $2,700, of which more than a third was spent for food. Families with annual incomes of less than $1,200 per year spent nearly one-half for food. Most families were urban, members of minority groups, and had homemakers with relatively low educational levels. Food consumption practices of homemakers upon entering the program indicated that many families had poor diets. Foods in the milk and fruit/vegetable groups were most often lacking in diets. Homemakers with poorest diets tended to be urban, on welfare, poorly educated, and have low-family incomes and food expenditures. After 6 months of EFNEP participation substantial improvements in food knowledge and consumption practices were evident, particularly in the consumption of foods in the milk and fruit/vegetable groups. Homemakers with the poorest diets showed more improvement than those who had better initial food consumption practices. Homemakers receiving more visits from program personnel, a measure of intensity of program instruction, increased their consumption of foods in the milk and fruit/vegetable groups more than homemakers receiving fewer visits. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 78 Number: 307452 Creation-Date: 1972-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307452 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307452/files/aer220.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307452 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Walden, W. Charles Title: Differences in the Quality of Housing Occupied By Black and White Households in Rural Areas of South-Central Tennessee, 1968 Abstract: A sample of rural residents in a 10-county area of Tennessee which did not have a history of plantation-type agriculture showed that homes occupied by black families were as large, had about the same number of persons per dwelling, were built about the same time, were constructed of similar materials, and had about as good a supply of water as homes occupied by white families. However, where measures of complete plumbing were used, homes occupied by blacks showed significantly lower quality. Black families made repairs and improvements to their homes just as frequently as did the white families and the black families had plans to make just as many improvements and repairs as white families. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 36 Number: 307467 Creation-Date: 1972-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307467 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307467/files/aer221.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307467 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rogers, George B. Title: Price Control Programs, 1917-71: Origins, Techniques, Effects on Food Prices Abstract: Inflationary forces leading to the imposition of price controls by the Government in four periods since 1914 are outlined. Basic concepts about price controls are discussed, and pricing standards and pricing techniques are described. Price movements before, during, and after World War I, World War II, the Korean Conflict, and the current Vietnam-related program are analyzed. Control of marketing margins on foods seems to have been successful in the three earlier experiences with price controls. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis Length: 37 Number: 307468 Creation-Date: 1972-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307468 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307468/files/aer223.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307468 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuehn, John A. Author-Name: Bender, Lloyd D. Author-Name: Green, Bernal L. Author-Name: Hoover, Herbert Title: Impact of Job Development on Poverty in Four Developing Areas, 1970 Abstract: Direct economic impacts of job development in new and expanded plants in four developing areas within Arizona, Appalachia, the Mississippi Delta, and the Ozarks were estimated. Approximately 25 percent of all jobs in these plants in 1970 were held by employees whose households had been poor. About 16 percent of the total jobs (two-thirds of the poor) were held by persons whose households escaped poverty by 1970 in their present employment. Discounted value of the increase in employees’ salaries was $12,880. Impacts of jobs varied considerably among areas. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital Length: 18 Number: 307469 Creation-Date: 1972-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307469 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307469/files/aer225.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307469 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vial, Edmund E. Title: Prices and Consumption of Dairy Products with Price Supports and Milk Orders Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: Among the fluid milk products the consumption of lowfat milks expanded rapidly and increased in relative importance. Among the frozen desserts, ice milk increased rapidly and increased in relative importance. Among the cheeses, cottage cheese increased in relative importance. Among these three groups of products the consumption of the lowfat items increased in relation to the other products in the group. During the last two decades the total per capita consumption of whole milk, lowfat milks, and nonfat dry milk (fluid skim equivalent) was remarkably stable, with lowfat milks and nonfat increasing in relative importance. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 87 Number: 307470 Creation-Date: 1972-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307470 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307470/files/aer226.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307470 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Starbird, I. R. Author-Name: French, B. L. Title: Costs of Producing Upland Cotton in the United States, 1969 Abstract: This report presents results of a survey of cotton production inputs and costs in 20 major producing regions of the United States. Average costs per acre and bale are given by input subgroups for each region and the United States. Average costs and receipts (including Government payments) per pound of lint produced are also shown. Production is distributed by cost level regionally and nationally. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 51 Number: 307471 Creation-Date: 1972-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307471 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307471/files/aer227.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307471 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Banks, Vera J. Author-Name: Beale, Calvin L. Title: Farm Population by Race, Tenure, and Economic Scale of Farming, 1966 and 1970 Abstract: The U. S. farm population in 1966 and 1970 is examined in terms of race, tenure, and economic class, with the operator and nonoperator populations separately identified. In both years, the great majority of all farm people resided in the same household as the farm operator. Only about a tenth of the farm population lived in rent-free dwelling units on farms. Negroes and other racial minorities on farms were disproportionately of nonoperator status. Most farm residents lived on farms operated by a full or part owner rather than a tenant or manager, although there were some differences by race and operator status. Despite an overall decline of 15 percent in the farm population during 1966-70, population growth occurred on farms with annual sales of $20,000 or more. Farm population declined most rapidly in the South during the period. This decline is associated with the heavier rates of population loss among Negro farm residents, of whom about 90 percent are in the Southern States. Keywords: Farm Management, Financial Economics Length: 18 Number: 307472 Creation-Date: 1972-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307472 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307472/files/aer228.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307472 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mathis, A. G. Author-Name: Friedly, D. E. Author-Name: Levine, S. G. Title: Government's Role in Pricing Fluid Milk in the United States Abstract: In 1971, the Federal marketing order system regulated 81 percent of the Nation's fluid milk sales, compared with over 50 percent in 1955. During 1971, 141,318 producers delivered 67.9 billion pounds of milk to Federal order handlers—more than 60 percent of all milk sold to plants and dealers. The farm value of this milk was $4.2 billion. Thirty-seven States administer milk distribution in one or more of the following ways: Establish minimum prices at the farm, wholesale, or retail levels; regulate trade practices; or permit milk promotional programs financed through producer or handler assessment or appropriation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 38 Number: 307473 Creation-Date: 1972-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307473 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307473/files/aer229.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307473 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Steward, Donald D. Author-Name: Myers, Paul R. Title: Housing 1970: Differences Between SMSA's and Non-SMSA's by Region with State Data Abstract: Based on selected data from the census of housing, as much as two-thirds of the poorer quality housing in the Nation was located outside metropolitan areas in 1970. One-half or more of such housing was found in the South. This less desirable housing was at least three times as prevalent among Negroes as among whites. Thus, in continuing efforts toward meeting national housing goals, special emphasis should be directed at improving housing in nonmetropolitan areas, particularly in the South and among Negro households Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 47 Number: 307474 Creation-Date: 1972-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307474 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307474/files/aer230.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307474 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jenkins, Robert P. Author-Name: Delvo, Herman W. Author-Name: Fox, Austin S. Title: Economic Impact of Discontinuing Farm Use of Chlordane Abstract: In 1971, U.S. farmers would have incurred additional costs of over $1.84 million if farm uses of the insecticide chlordane had been discontinued. Based on estimates of 1971 acreage treated with chlordane, this aggregate loss would have included $1.56 million in additional costs for alternative insecticides and $0.28 million in yield losses. Added costs for alternative insecticides would have ranged from $0.18 an acre for cotton to $6.77 an acre for corn. For producers of potatoes, tomatoes, strawberries, and certain vegetables, the added cost would have averaged about $2.25 an acre. Because alternative insecticides are not as effective as chlordane in controlling insects on citrus, strawberries, and certain vegetables, per acre yield losses for these crops would have been $31, $75, and $23, respectively. Total use of chlordane would have decreased by 601,000 pounds if farm use had been discontinued. But the increase in alternative insecticides would have been about 1.1 million pounds--primarily carbaryl and diazinon for com production and small amounts of phorate, EPN, parathion, and methyl parathion for other crops. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 20 Number: 307475 Creation-Date: 1972-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307475 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307475/files/aer231.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307475 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Goodsell, Wylie D. Title: Organization, Costs, and Returns, Northwest Cattle Ranches, 1960-71 Abstract: Net returns in 1971 were record high on viable commercial cattle ranches in the Northern Plains and the Northern Rocky Mountain areas, 2 of the most important cow-calf producing areas in the United States. Record-high prices received for calves contributed most to higher returns. Better than average range conditions the last 5 years, a record-large breeding herd, calving rate, and calf market weights, and lower death loss also contributed to the top returns in the Northern Plains. In the Rocky Mountain area livestock prices advanced a little more than in the Plains but range conditions were less favorable than a year earlier and there was little change in breeding herd size. However, with calving rates remaining at the 1970 record level, and with lower death losses and new highs for calf market weights, total livestock marketings topped 1970's record by almost 5 percent. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 41 Number: 307476 Creation-Date: 1972-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307476 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307476/files/aer232.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307476 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duymovic, Andrew Author-Name: Crom, Richard Author-Name: Sullivan, James Title: Effects of Alternative Beef Import Policies on the Beef and Pork Sectors Abstract: The effects of alternative beef import policies on price and output responses in the beef and pork sectors of the livestock-meat economy are analyzed for the period 1971-80. A base model, representing the current meat import regulation, was used to project the behavior of these sectors through 1980. Then the base model was modified to simulate alternative import policies and the results were compared with the base projection values. A restrictive import policy which reduced beef imports to zero by 1975 resulted in a smaller supply of meat at somewhat higher hog and steer prices. A liberalized import policy allowing beef imports to double in the 1970's resulted in greater beef supplies at lower prices for Choice steers and hogs. An increased supply of lower grade beef became available to consumers as the supply of fed beef declined. A quarterly quota, somewhat more restrictive than current regulations, stabilized beef imports at slightly lower levels than the current policy and resulted in further growth of the domestic beef industry compared with the base projection values. A policy to stabilize the supply of nonfed beef at 36-40 pounds per person per year showed a lower rate of growth in the domestic cattle industry. A policy to stabilize Choice steer prices through controls of beef imports achieved a gradual upward trend in steer prices with some seasonal variations, no significant effect on hog prices, and limited growth of the domestic cattle industry. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 28 Number: 307477 Creation-Date: 1972-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307477 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307477/files/aer233.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307477 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gray, Leo R. Author-Name: Hart, Marcus R. Title: Caustic Dry Peeling of Cling Peaches to Reduce Water Pollution: Its Economic Feasibility Abstract: The economic feasibility of a new caustic dry method of peeling cling peaches is examined. The dry-peel method, developed as an alternative to the currently used wet-peel method, is designed to reduce the pollution in fruit canneries' wastewaters. By using the dry-peel method instead of the wet-peel method, a cling pea cannery would generate less wastewater and the pollution level of the water would be lower. The cannery would realize savings in fresh water costs. Savings in wastewater disposal costs would vary, depending on whether wastewater service charges are based partially on the water's biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or only on the volume of wastewater discharged. Labor requirements would probably not increase. New equipment costs could be largely offset if a replacement cost is allocated for the old wet-peel equipment. Solid waste disposal costs would increase because some of the peeling loss would be recovered as a solid waste rather than being discharged into the wastewater stream. Such added costs would be at least partially offset, however, for canneries located in areas where BOD is a factor in computation of wastewater service charges. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics Length: 43 Number: 307478 Creation-Date: 1972-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307478 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307478/files/aer234.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307478 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Author-Name: Skold, Melvin D. Title: Cattle Raising in the United States Abstract: Per capita consumption of beef rose from 85 pounds in 1960 to 114 pounds in 1970, and is projected to reach about 128 pounds by 1980. Since 1950, cattle feeding has expanded until most calves are now grain fed before slaughter. Additional beef will have to come mainly from increased numbers of cattle. Beef cows grew from 16.7 million in 1950 to 37.3 million in 1970 and are expected to reach 46.3 million by 1980. Milk cows decreased from 23.9 million to 13.9 million over the same period, and are expected to number 12.1 million by 1980. The Southeast has gained 6.4 million beef cows since 1950 and is expected to add another 2.7 million by 1980. This region offers the greatest potential for future increase of beef cows in the United States. The humid climate and long growing season contribute to good forage production, thus sustaining and encouraging cattle grazing. The Corn Belt and Northern Plains also have substantial growth potential. Changes within the beef industry, improved forage production and utilization, and an expectation of favorable prices are major factors encouraging expansion in cattle raising. Beef and dairy cattle estimated for 1980 will produce about 127 pounds of beef per capita with a projected population of 230 million. Changes in cattle productivity are anticipated, as are changes in import-export balances. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 94 Number: 307479 Creation-Date: 1973-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307479 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307479/files/aer235.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307479 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bills, Nelson L. Author-Name: Barkley, Paul W. Title: Public Investments and Population Changes in Three Rural Washington State Towns Abstract: Changes in the size and socioeconomic composition of the population in rural communities have confronted local units of government with the need to make decisions pertaining to investments in public services. This report analyzes public capital expenditures in three rural towns that gained or lost population or maintained a stable population between 1930 and 1965. Results show that towns that are gaining or losing population use different options for funding capital expenditures. The growing town extensively used special property assessments and bonded indebtedness to secure investment capital. The town that lost population during 1930-65 relied primarily on transfers of funds from State and Federal Governments for investment capital. The stable town also used transfers extensively, but its largest source of investment capital came from current revenue, accruals, investment earnings, short-term indebtedness, and other miscellaneous sources. Although expenditure levels varied, the distribution of investment by type of function was similar in each community. Per capita expenditures for water, streets, and sewers were closely associated with population growth rates in the growing town. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 30 Number: 307480 Creation-Date: 1973-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307480 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307480/files/aer236.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307480 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Trotter, W. K. Author-Name: Doty, H. O., Jr. Author-Name: Givan, W. D. Author-Name: Lawler, J. V. Title: Potential for Oilseed Sunflowers in the United States Abstract: The rising prominence of sunflower oil in world edible oil markets has stimulated increased interest in expanded U.S. production. U.S. acreage devoted to oilseed sunflowers has expanded rapidly, with over 600,000 acres grown in 1972. Production has been concentrated in the southern Cotton Belt States and in the Red River Valley area of Minnesota and North Dakota. This report examines recent trends in domestic fats and oils markets and the possible place of sunflower oil in these markets. Estimates are developed of the yield per acre and price required of sunflowerseed to make it competitive with established crops in the two areas. Also, estimates are made of the costs and profitability of processing sunflowerseed in southern screw-press mills. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 61 Number: 307481 Creation-Date: 1973-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307481 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307481/files/aer237.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307481 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heifner, Richard G. Title: Hedging Potential in Grain Storage and Livestock Feeding Abstract: The potential for shifting risk through hedging in commodity futures is analyzed for selected grain storage and livestock feeding situations. Results applying to various locations, grades, and/or classes are reported for wheat, corn, oats, cattle, and hogs. Hedging potential is measured in terms of risk-shifting effectiveness--the proportional reduction in the variance of profits that can be obtained through routine hedging. The study indicates that hedging provides an effective means of shifting risk in livestock feeding as well as in grain storage. For most of the situations studied, the level of hedging that minimizes overall profit risk ranges between 0.6 and 1.0 unit of futures per unit of cash commodity. About one-third to two-thirds of the price risk can be shifted through hedging at this level. Hedging effectiveness declines as the distance from the delivery point for the futures contract increases. Hedging effectiveness differs between classes of wheat and among the three wheat futures markets. Grade has little impact on hedging effectiveness in cattle feeding, however. Optimal hedging levels for individual firms are shown to be very sensitive to the firms’ price expectations. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 46 Number: 307482 Creation-Date: 1973-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307482 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307482/files/aer238.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307482 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Author-Name: Johnson, Stanley S. Title: An Economic Analysis of Cling Peach Production with Emphasis on Harvest Mechanization Abstract: In 1970, some 10 percent of California's cling peaches were mechanically harvested. Mechanization results in substituting machine investment for labor. For example, an estimated $25,000 invested in a mechanical harvester substitutes for 3,962 hours of labor a year on an 80-acre peach farm. The economical point for purchasing a mechanical harvester is an estimated 37 acres of mature peaches yielding 14 tons an acre. This equal-cost peach acreage is the point where hand and machine harvest costs break even. A relative 25-percent gain in labor costs from 1970 wage rates would lower the equal-cost point to 29 acres. Rate of adopting mechanical harvesters depends on the economic feasibility of such acquisition, processors' attitudes toward handling machine-harvested fruit, and their capabilities for such handling. Mechanization of cling harvest would call for a series of adjustments by growers and workers. Growers would have to increase investments in machinery and change some cultural practices. Some workers would have to acquire higher skills, while others would lose their jobs and need retraining for new ones. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 44 Number: 307483 Creation-Date: 1973-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307483 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307483/files/aer240.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307483 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coffman, George Title: Farm Corporations: A Financial Analysis Abstract: In 1968, of the total of 3.1 million farm tax returns filed, only 20,000 were from farm corporations. Even this small number represents an increase, but most of this increase is in corporations using the subchapter S option. These are closely held corporations, taxed like partnerships. Farm corporations as a group tended to have more losses and lower returns, with greater variability than certain other corporate industries. The 1963-68 average rate of earning on assets (cost or acquisition value) was 4.5 percent and the rate of return on equity was 5.3 percent. Farm corporations had moderate financial strength. Equity capital was 39 percent of the total. More than half of the assets of farm corporations were invested in land and depreciable assets. The slow turnover rate on these assets and low profit margin on receipts contributed to the low returns on assets and equity. In 1968, farm corporations averaged $317,000 in assets, produced $260,000 in receipts, and earned $17,000 net income. Keywords: Farm Management, Financial Economics, Production Economics Length: 31 Number: 307484 Creation-Date: 1973-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307484 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307484/files/aer241.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307484 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Woods, W. Fred Title: Increasing Impact of Federal Estate and Gift Taxes on the Farm Sector: Present Law and Proposed Changes Abstract: Up to the early 1960's, Federal estate and gift taxes were not large enough to present a major problem for owners of family-size farms. However, the average value of farm production assets increased from $47,500 per farm in 1962 to $102,100 in 1972. The estate tax exemption is $60,000, and an increasing number of heirs to farms are subject to the tax. Since 70 to 90 percent of total farm assets are in the form of fixed assets (land and buildings), heirs of farmers may have a liquidity problem in paying death taxes. While the Internal Revenue Code provides for the extension of payments in liquidity hardship cases, other code provisions create barriers to the use of this privilege. Changes currently mentioned for the Federal estate and gift tax laws include (1) unifying estate and gift taxes into a single transfer tax (gifts are now taxed at a lower rate); (2) taxing the appreciation of capital assets (capital gains) transferred at death; (3) changing the level of exemptions; (4) removing the 50-percent marital deduction; and (5) liberalizing tax payment rules in liquidity hardship cases. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Financial Economics Length: 20 Number: 307485 Creation-Date: 1973-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307485 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307485/files/aer242.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307485 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crom, Richard Author-Name: Duewer, Lawrence Title: Effects of Alternative Marketing Margins for Beef and Pork Abstract: Price spreads between retail and wholesale markets for beef and pork have shown several distinct increases over the past decade. Both consumers and producers have felt the "middleman" receives too large a share of the consumer's meat dollar. But little has been said concerning the longrun effects of the amount and form of the margin on production and prices. Three sets of alternative margin plans are examined by simulation. One compares the effects of a change in the form of the margin, from fixed to percentage. The two other plans involve changing the levels of the fixed and percentage margins. For each of these margin strategies, prices and production of beef and pork and the size of the domestic beef herd are compared with expected results under the current practices (the base projection) through 1985. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 26 Number: 307486 Creation-Date: 1973-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307486 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307486/files/aer243.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307486 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marion, Bruce W. Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Title: Market Performance: Concepts and Measures Abstract: The need exists for new criteria to reflect the qualitative as well as quantitative aspects of market performance. Also emphasized in the report is the multidimensional nature of performance. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Marketing Science Institute jointly sponsored a project to evaluate current market performance concepts and measures and develop new or improved ones. At this point, industrial organization theory provides the only analytical framework of market performance that is well developed and empirically tested. The structure of markets and their performance have been found to be related—but not in a linear fashion. Vertical market relationships need further analysis to expand on the few existing insights into market performance. Empirical and theoretical work have focused mainly on horizontal relationships. This report brings together several recent efforts to expand conceptual models of vertical market systems. Two new measures are presented: The value of retail exchange services and an Index of Consumer Satisfaction. These attempt to overcome the lack of attention given by existing measures to the level and distribution of consumer satisfaction with goods and services. Given the numerous and changing dimensions of market performance, and the narrow focus of most performance measures, a multidimensional information system on market performance needs to be set up. Such a system could provide greater continuity among the uses of existing performance measures, assimilate the findings of individual studies, and act as a catalyst for further examination of the factors influencing market performance. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Marketing, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 138 Number: 307487 Creation-Date: 1973-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307487 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307487/files/aer244.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307487 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duewer, Lawrence A. Title: Price-Quantity Relationships for Selected Retail Cuts of Pork Abstract: In examining price-quantity relationships of eight cuts of pork (loins, hams, butts, spareribs, sausage, picnics, bacon, and lunch meat); and three types of outlets (chain, independent, and convenience), equation results of a specific cut were found not to differ greatly by retail outlet. Equations of retail price predictions for each of the 24 combinations are presented, and various data series, not generally available are included in the study. Appendixes to the main text provide more complete examination of derivation of data, a brief look at the theory involved, and estimates of elasticity. Data derivations include quantities by cut as they flow through nonretail consumer outlets (hotel restaurants, institutions, and other away-from-home eating places). A shift in pork demand between 1965 and 1966 was noted, and the fact that poultry was a closer competitor of pork than was beef. The study also showed differences in demand among pork cuts, and examined other areas such as sales trends by types of retail outlet Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 51 Number: 307488 Creation-Date: 1973 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307488 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307488/files/aer245.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307488 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Feaster, J. Gerald Author-Name: Perkins, Garey B. Title: Families in the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program: Comparison of Food Stamp and Food Distribution Program Participants and Non-Participants Abstract: Socioeconomic and food consumption profiles of families in the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) are presented according to their food assistance status during 1969. This includes profiles of food stamp and food distribution program participants, eligible nonparticipants, and ineligible families. EFNEP is administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Extension Service. Significant differences in socioeconomic characteristics and food consumption practices existed among EFNEP families according to their food assistance program status. Among participants and those eligible but not participating, food stamp families fared best in both economic and food consumption characteristics. Food assistance recipients and eligible nonparticipants ranked below ineligibles in economic and food consumption characteristics. Regression analysis identified significant factors contributing to variations in food expenditures and family income. Income and family size were among the variables significantly related to food expenditures, while education and family size were among those significantly related to family income. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 67 Number: 307489 Creation-Date: 1973-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307489 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307489/files/aer246.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307489 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Market Structure, Institutions, and Performance in the Fluid Milk Industry Abstract: For 144 fluid milk markets throughout the country, the interrelationships of market structure, institutions, and performance in the postwar period are analyzed. Performance is measured in terms of marketing margins and innovativeness. The variables included explain about 40 percent of the variance In marketing margins and about 50 percent of the variance in innovativeness. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 46 Number: 307490 Creation-Date: 1974-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307490 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307490/files/aer248.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307490 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, Bruce B. Title: Farmland Tenure Patterns in the United States Abstract: A significant amount of U.S. farmland, in terms of both acreage and total, market value, is rented. There is wide variation, however, depending on farm size and type of enterprise. Reliance on leasing increases with size of operation. Compared with owned land, a higher percentage of all rented farmland is in the larger farms. Tenure patterns vary considerably by type of farm, with leasing being most important in cash grain enterprises. These relationships suggest that if the trend toward increasing farm size continues, an even higher percentage of all rented land will be in the larger farms. This implies greater reliance on part-owner operations, particularly among farming operations that require large acreages. Estimates are based on the 1969 Census of Agriculture and pertain chiefly to farms with gross annual receipts of $2,500 or more. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital Length: 50 Number: 307491 Creation-Date: 1974-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307491 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307491/files/aer249.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307491 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Otte, Robert C. Title: Farming in the City's Shadow: Urbanization of Land and Changes in Farm Output in Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 1960-70 Abstract: Urbanization is advancing rapidly in many areas of the United States, yet urban areas occupy only about 10 percent of the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, where there is the greatest concentration of population. Moreover, the current rate of urbanization has had little apparent impact on total U.S. agricultural production. Seventy percent of the U.S. population lives within the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's)—counties or groups of counties with urban concentrations of 50,000 or more people. Over 80 percent of the population increase between 1960 and 1970 occurred in SMSA's. About 7 million acres, an average of nearly one-third of an acre per capita population increase, shifted to urban uses within SMSA's during that time. Only 10 percent of the total area of SMSA's was in urban uses in 1970. Twenty-four percent was cropland, 19 percent pasture and range, 32 percent woodland, and 15 percent miscellaneous. SMSA's comprise 13 percent of the land area of the 48 contiguous states; but 17 percent of the farms, 14 percent of cropland harvested, and 21 percent of the value of farm products sold were reported from these areas in 1969. Overall, the proportion of the total value of farm products sold in SMSA's decreased slightly between 1959 and 1969. Of the eight highest valued crops, the proportion produced within SMSA's increased for four crops and decreased for the others during this period. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 17 Number: 307499 Creation-Date: 1974-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307499 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307499/files/aer250.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307499 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Title: Farmers' Use of Pesticides in 1971 -- Quantities Abstract: Farmers used 494 million pounds of pesticides in 1971 (exclusive of sulfur and petroleum)—a 40-percent increase over 1966. Crops accounted for close to 94 percent of the use of these pesticides. Herbicides, the major farm pesticide products, accounted for 228 million pounds, twice the amount in 1966. Almost all of the herbicides were used on crops, and 45 percent of these on corn. Farmers used about 170 million pounds of insecticides in 1971, up 14 percent over 1966. Cotton was the major recipient of insecticide products, accounting for over 47 percent of those used on crops. Farm use of fungicides amounted to almost 42 million pounds, and miscellaneous pesticides accounted for over 54 million pounds. Information is presented on leading products such as methyl parathion, toxaphene, and 2,4-D. Approximately 96 pesticides (individual products or groups of products) are included in the study, which is based on a survey of about 8,600 farmers throughout the United States (excluding Alaska). Survey data were expanded to represent regional and U.S. pesticide usage for selected crops, livestock, and other purposes. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 63 Number: 307500 Creation-Date: 1974-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307500 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307500/files/aer252.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307500 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Forsht, R. Gar Author-Name: Burbee, Clark R. Author-Name: Crosswhite, William M. Title: Recycling Poultry Waste as Feed: Will It Pay? Abstract: The recycling of dried layer waste (DLW) as feed to livestock and poultry is examined in considerable detail, but less information is available on recycling broiler waste. The cost of pollution abatement associated with alternative poultry-waste management systems is also analyzed. The cost of producing 1 ton of DLW is $25, $30, and $46 for flock sizes of 80,000, 50,000 and 10,000 cage layers, respectively. Using available drying systems, onfarm processing and feeding of DLW do not appear to be economically feasible for the family-size (10,000 layer) operation. However, processing and feeding DLW may be feasible for the larger operations. The highest net returns are attained by the larger operations when DLW is fed at 12.5 percent of the ration. Cost analyses of the alternative methods of waste abatement show land disposal and anaerobic lagoon treatment to be the least expensive. Mechanical drying, aerobic lagoon treatment, oxidation ditch treatment, and combined anerobic-aerobic lagoon treatment fall within the intermediate cost range. Composting and incineration are the most expensive. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 59 Number: 307501 Creation-Date: 1974-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307501 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307501/files/aer254.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307501 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Goodsell, Wylie D. Author-Name: Gray, James R. Author-Name: Belfield, Macie J. Title: Southwest Cattle Ranches Organization, Costs, and Returns, 1964-72 Abstract: Net returns in 1972 were a record high on viable commercial cattle ranches in the Southwest, one of the most important feeder calf producing areas in the United States. Favorable range conditions that reversed the drought situation of previous years and recordbreaking prices received for cattle in 1972 combined to boost returns to ranchers. Returns were large enough to pay ranchers an adequate wage for their labor, with some opportunity to reduce burgeoning indebtedness. Keywords: Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 41 Number: 307502 Creation-Date: 1974-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307502 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307502/files/aer255.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307502 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hady, Thomas F. Author-Name: Sibold, Ann Gordon Title: State Programs for the Differential Assessment of Farm and Open Space Land Abstract: Differential assessment laws are now in use in 31 States. Deferred tax laws are most common; some States use preferential assessment laws or restrictive agreements. These laws typically are instituted for one of two reasons: to reduce what are perceived as inequities in the application of property tax to farms, or to influence land use. These reasons are discussed in the bulletin and summaries of individual State laws are provided. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 71 Number: 307503 Creation-Date: 1974-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307503 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307503/files/aer256.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307503 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: United States and World Fertilizer Outlook, 1974 and 1980 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: The report addresses primary questions concerning the fertilizer situation. How tight is the current supply and demand balance? Where might shortages occur? What will be their intact? Is the current situation indicative of even larger shortages in the future? What barriers loom, and how can they be overcome? What policy measures are needed to correct the situation? Attention is directed to the situation and outlook in the United States and the world with emphasis on less developed countries. Because of inadequate data, the situation in individual States or localities within the United States could not be explicitly addressed. It should not be inferred, however, that the situation in these areas parallels that for the United States. Conditions vary considerably, and the severity of the problem in some areas greatly exceeds that for the United States in general. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 71 Number: 307504 Creation-Date: 1974-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307504 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307504/files/aer257.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307504 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Holtman, J. B. Author-Name: Sullivan, J. D. Author-Name: Barreto, H. F. Title: Supply Control Savings for Hog Slaughtering-Processing Plants Abstract: According to a random-process simulation model, slaughter plant cost savings of over 10 percent could be realized if complete market hog supply control were to be obtained. For the five sizes of plants studied, costs could be reduced by an average of $1.33 per hog. Cost savings via complete supply control ranged from $1.02 per hog for a 600-head-per-hour plant to $1.80 per hog for a 50-head-per-hour plant. Even though a high daily variation was considered, seasonal variation was the major determinant of costs attributed to supply variation. A feature of the model used in the systems analysis is the random component in determining the actual per hour productivity of workers in the slaughtering, cutting, processing, and rendering operations. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 25 Number: 307505 Creation-Date: 1974-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307505 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307505/files/aer258.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307505 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vosloh, Carl J., Jr. Author-Name: Kuzmicky, Donald D. Author-Name: Kohler, George O. Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Title: Air Separation of Alfalfa Into High and Low Protein Fractions: An Economic Evaluation Abstract: Five separated dehydrated alfalfa products of different protein levels were evaluated using prices of feed ingredients from four different markets and three different time periods in both poultry and cattle rations. This evaluation shows that in some market situations the economic value of dehydrated alfalfa (dehy) can be increased by separation. The study also describes how the value of separation can be estimated. The method for air separating the light leafy fraction, which is high in protein and low in fiber, from the denser stem fraction, which contains most of the fiber, was developed by the Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA. This technique provides the potential for producing dehydrated alfalfa products that can be more efficiently utilized by different livestock classes. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 45 Number: 307506 Creation-Date: 1974-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307506 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307506/files/aer259.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307506 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Author-Name: Ziegler, Stephen J. Title: Economic Impact of Controlling Surface Water Runoff from U.S. Dairy Farms Abstract: U.S. dairy farmers will soon be faced with Environmental Protection Agency waste control regulations. This study estimated the investment and annual costs they will incur for lot runoff control and solid waste storage systems. Findings indicate that total investment for facilities and equipment to control lot runoff for typical dairy farms, assuming all U.S. dairy producers have lot discharge problems, would be $780 million. An estimated 40 percent of the dairy producers actually have problems. This would represent an aggregate investment of $312 million. EPA regulations will fall heaviest on dairy farms with fewer than 20 cows, where investment could be almost $200 per cow and the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk could increase by 45 cents. Exempting these small producers from compliance would reduce total investment to $528 million, assuming all producers have lot discharge problems. It is expected that runoff control regulations will hasten the exit of small dairy producers and stimulate the current shift to fewer and larger farms. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 50 Number: 307507 Creation-Date: 1974-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307507 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307507/files/aer260.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307507 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Developments in Marketing Spreads for Agricultural Products in 1974 Abstract: Reflecting strong inflationary forces in the economy, charges for processing and distributing food products rose an extraordinary amount in 1974 and accounted for most of the rise in retail food prices. These food marketing charges, as measured by the spread between the retail cost and farm value of a market basket of farm foods, rose 20 percent in 1974, three times greater than any previous annual rise. Returns to farmers for commodities equivalent to market basket foods averaged 6 percent higher than in 1973. The retail cost of the market basket rose 14 percent. Estimates of cost and profit components of margins for 22 foods reveal that labor and packaging account for the largest share of the processing and retailing margins for most products. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 34 Number: 307508 Creation-Date: 1975-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307508 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307508/files/aer261.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307508 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lea, Dallas M. Author-Name: Mattson, C. Dudley Title: Evolution of the Small Watershed Program: Changes in Public Law 566 Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Program, 1954-72 Abstract: From 1954 through 1972, the scope of the Small Watershed Program has expanded considerably but flood protection for farm land remains Its most significant feature. Congressional action during this time has expanded the program to include development of recreation, fish and wildlife resources, and municipal and industrial water supply. However, the watershed program has remained predominantly agricultural, with drainage and irrigation, as well as flood protection, comprising the most significant part of the program. This study identifies changes in the Small Watershed Program since its beginning and measures its varied emphasis among regions of the United States. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Environmental Economics and Policy, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 66 Number: 307509 Creation-Date: 1974-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307509 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307509/files/aer262.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307509 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Author-Name: Smith, Richard B. Author-Name: Stucker, Thomas A. Title: Economic Impact of Controlling Surface Water Runoff from Point Sources in U.S. Hog Production Abstract: This report discusses the prevention of surface water pollution with hog wastes from point sources, and relates it to major structural characteristics of hog production. Nonpoint source pollution, arising from pasture systems and the application of hog wastes to farmland, is recognized but not evaluated. This analysis centers on the 15 major hog-producing States. In 1969, they accounted for 511,000 farms selling hogs, and for 89 percent of U.S. hog output. A third of total sales came from 368,000 farms selling fewer than 200 hogs each annually; 12 percent of sales were from farms selling 1,000 head or more. Open-lot systems of production accounted for 58 percent of all systems; pasture, 33 percent; and total confinement, 9 percent. Uncontrolled runoff is estimated to occur on 112,000 farms; 86,000 of them use open-lot systems. Effluent guidelines used in this report were assumed, since EPA guidelines had not been issued when this study was made. Under these assumptions, application of runoff control facilities to open-lot systems with problems would require investments in the 15 States of $254 to $290 million, and increased annual costs of $36 to $44, or $0.90 to $1.00 per 100 pounds of hogs produced. Unit investments and annual costs would be over 10 times as great for the smallest as for the largest enterprises. After control adjustments are complete, water should be free of hog wastes; pork should cost consumers little or no more as a result of the clean-up program. During the adjustment period some producers, agribusiness firms, and rural communities will suffer; pork supplies are likely to drop and prices to rise. Undesirable economic impacts can be minimized through proper application of regulations Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 67 Number: 307510 Creation-Date: 1974-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307510 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307510/files/aer263.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307510 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krenz, Ronald D. Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Author-Name: Sitler, Harry Title: Economics of Large Wheat Farms in the Great Plains Abstract: Economies in buying and selling and in lower investments in machinery found on large wheat farms are partially offset by higher costs for labor and other hired services. Rates of return to equity before income taxes increase with farm size, but rates of return after taxes are very similar regardless of size. The number of large farms will probably increase most rapidly during periods of good prices and good weather. Continued growth in numbers is expected but management rather than capital may be the limiting factor. Growth in the number of large farms is likely to have depressing effects on smalltown merchants who are bypassed by large farmers. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Production Economics Length: 50 Number: 307511 Creation-Date: 1974-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307511 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307511/files/aer264.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307511 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wiser, Vivian D. Title: Protecting American Agriculture: Inspection and Quarantine of Imported Plants and Animals Abstract: Improved transportation has facilitated the international movement of crops and livestock, but has placed greater burdens upon our inspection and quarantine system. Roots of the Department of Agriculture's involvement in this area are imbedded in more than a century of its history. Implementation of legislation has also involved the U. S. Postal Service, the Department of the Treasury, the Department of Defense, and other agencies to a lesser degree. Scientists in the Department of Agriculture have worked closely with their counterparts in the States and private industry. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 62 Number: 307512 Creation-Date: 1974-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307512 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307512/files/aer266.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307512 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Boone, Larry M. Title: Estimating Crop Losses Due to Hail Abstract: Crops lost annually by hail damage have an estimated value of $403 million a year (at 1968 prices), or about 2 percent of the nation's total annual crop value. The same annual crop damage valued at 1973 prices would be $685 million. Over four-fifths of this damage is in wheat, corn, soybeans, cotton, tobacco, and grain sorghum. The procedure developed for these estimates of crop damage due to hail used harvested crop values and crop-hail insurance loss payments per $100 of insured liability. Several downward biases in the estimates caused by data configurations are identified but not quantified. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 45 Number: 307513 Creation-Date: 1974-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307513 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307513/files/aer267.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307513 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Title: Farmers' Use of Pesticides in 1971 -- Extent of Crop Use Abstract: Over half of all U.S. farmers use pesticides to control crop pests on about 50 percent of their cropland acres. In 1971, about 45 percent of the farmers growing crops used herbicides, 26 percent used insecticides, 6 percent used fungicides, 2 percent used nematocides, and 10 percent used other pesticides (including defoliants, desiccants, growth regulators, miticides, and rodenticides). Farmers treated 41 percent of cropland acres (not including pasture and rangeland) with herbicides, and 15 percent with insecticides, 2 percent with fungicides, less than 1 percent with nematocides, and about 1 percent with other pesticides. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 31 Number: 307514 Creation-Date: 1975-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307514 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307514/files/aer268.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307514 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuehn, John A. Title: Employment Growth in the Ozarks States, 1960-70 Abstract: Despite the overall slower employment growth from 1960 to 1970 in four Ozarks States, compared to the national average, employment in 84 counties grew faster than the national rate. Much of the growth was based on interregional shifts in various manufacturing categories. Many rural counties experienced this growth, and metropolitan stature was neither necessary nor sufficient for growth to occur. Stage of industrial development was not predictive of future growth. Many counties experienced changes in employment structure from agriculture to manufacturing, trades, and services. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 32 Number: 307515 Creation-Date: 1974-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307515 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307515/files/aer269.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307515 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sutton, John D. Title: Evaluation of Four Completed Small Watershed Projects: South Carolina, Maryland, Idaho-Nevada, and West Virginia Abstract: This study was designed to determine the efficacy of the planning process and in four operating small watershed projects. A qualitative appraisal was made of actual performance and costs, which were then compared with work plan projections. Particular attention was paid to factors, as reported by project beneficiaries and leaders of local sponsoring organizations, that affected the size and composition of these realized values. The desired physical manipulation of the water resource—reducing flooding, improving drainage, and providing water for irrigation, municipal use, and recreation—was achieved in each project. However, this was not always equivalent to generating desired economic performance; for example, higher crop yields. Thus, realized values often differed in size and always in composition from projected values. Study results indicate that planners should strongly encourage local involvement in planning, evaluate social and economic variables that tend to delimit a project's operating environment, and use a multiobjective planning approach to minimize differences between work plan estimates and actual values. The projects evaluated reportedly had only a limited impact on the natural environment. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Environmental Economics and Policy, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 64 Number: 307516 Creation-Date: 1974-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307516 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307516/files/aer271.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307516 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hines, Fred K. Author-Name: Brown, David L. Author-Name: Zimmer, John M. Title: Social and Economic Characteristics of the Population in Metro and Nonmetro Counties, 1970 Abstract: U.S. counties are classified along a dimension of urban-rural orientation and the socioeconomic characteristics of their populations are compared for 1970 and for 1960-70 trends. Differences between the total population and the minority population are also compared. Socioeconomic characteristics examined include population distribution and growth; age, sex, and family structures; geographic mobility; education; labor force participation and occupational status; income; and incidence of poverty. Findings indicate that the population of totally rural nonmetropolitan counties, compared with that of other counties, has a relatively low level of current socioeconomic status and future potential. The population of the more urbanized nonmetropolitan counties compares favorably with that of metropolitan areas in terms of age structure, geographic mobility, educational attainment, income, and employment status. Across all residence categories, however, there are substantial differences between the total population and the minority population. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital Length: 113 Number: 307517 Creation-Date: 1975-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307517 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307517/files/aer272.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307517 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Schnake, L. D. Author-Name: Watson, C. A Title: Diverter-Type Mechanical Sampling of Grain: A Cost Analysis Abstract: Costs of sampling grain using a diverter-type mechanical sampler were synthesized for five sampler sizes operated at six levels of annual throughput. The ranges of annual operating costs (cents per bushel) for samples in the study were: (1) 6-inch sampler, 0.0740-0.6242; (2) 9- inch sampler, 0.0591-0.7618; (3) 10-inch sampler, 0.0529-0.7618; (4) 16-inch sampler, 0.0157-0.0439; and (5) 36-inch sampler, 0.0073-0.0602. These cost data will allow grain industry decisionmakers to analyze the costs against expected benefits of adopting the warehouseman's sample-lot inspection service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Widespread adoption of the warehouseman's sample-lot inspection of grain which utilizes the diverter-type mechanical sampler would contribute significantly to railcar utilization, and consequently to increased efficiency throughout the grain marketing-transportation complex. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 18 Number: 307518 Creation-Date: 1975-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307518 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307518/files/aer273.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307518 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grinstead, Mary Jo Author-Name: Green, Bernal L. Author-Name: Redfern, J. Martin Title: Social and Labor Adjustment of Rural Black Americans in the Mississippi Delta: A Case Study of Madison, Ark. Abstract: In a study of socioeconomic factors affecting employment of rural people in industry, residents of Madison, Ark., a primarily low-income black community of about 985 in the Mississippi Delta, did not exhibit the "culture of poverty" often attributed to low-income groups. Attitudinal factors affecting employability were measured on five scales by race, sex, age, income, education, and welfare status. Although black groups uniformly scored lower on a scale to measure socioeconomic status (even when balanced by income level and educational attainment), blacks did not uniformly have lower mean scores than whites on scales measuring social participation and job satisfaction potential. Nor were blacks more externally controlled or more tolerant of deviant behavior than whites. Major physical deterrents to employment were lack of transportation and unsatisfactory work environment. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 59 Number: 307519 Creation-Date: 1974-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307519 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307519/files/aer274.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307519 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jesse, Edward V. Title: Packing California Vine-Ripe Tomatoes: Costs and Efficiencies Abstract: Synthesized costs for three model packinghouses in California showed significant economies of size for vine-ripe tomatoes. Mechanization of the sizing process and substitution of bins for field boxes in packinghouse operations were primarily responsible for the cost savings. Under a specified season length and operating capacity, a small model packinghouse had per unit operating costs of $1.60; a medium-size model, $1.30; and a large model, $1.15. The most efficient size of packinghouse for a given area, however, was shown to depend heavily on season length. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 43 Number: 307520 Creation-Date: 1974-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307520 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307520/files/aer275.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307520 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shaw, Dale L. Title: Costs of Building and Operating Rice Drying and Storage Facilities in California, 1973 Abstract: The current rate of $.50 per hundredweight for drying and storing rough rice at commercial facilities in California produced insufficient revenues to encourage replacement or expansion of existing facilities at current cost levels. Analyses of capital requirements and operating costs, using economic-engineering techniques, show that per hundredweight operating costs, when annual receipts equal storage capacities, are higher than expected revenues for all 11 model plants developed in this study. Models consist of four sizes—100,000, 300,000, 600,000, and 900,000 hundredweight storage capacity--and three types of operations--all upright storage, 60-percent flat storage, and 80-percent flat storage, with high-capacity aeration to aid drying--in varying combinations. Estimated operating costs range from $.52 to $1.50 per hundredweight of rough rice received at 100-percent annual receipt levels. Costs favor the use of flat storage with high-capacity aeration by as much as 22 percent in the larger models. In operations of like type, costs per hundredweight were over 50 percent lower in the largest plant size than the smallest size. Capital requirements ranged from $750,000 to $3.25 million. Diseconomies resulting from reduced rates of plant utilization more than overshadowed economies of size. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 75 Number: 307521 Creation-Date: 1974-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307521 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307521/files/aer276.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307521 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Author-Name: Shugars, Owen K. Author-Name: Givan, William D. Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Title: Structural Characteristics of Flue-Cured Tobacco Farms and Prospects for Harvest Mechanization Abstract: By 1978, mechanical harvesters will be used to harvest an estimated 23-36 percent of the flue-cured tobacco acreage in the study area, which produces three-fourths of all U.S. flue-cured tobacco. Farmers will use bulk barns to cure an expected 65-80 percent of it. Comparison figures of 1972 are 1 and 8 percent, respectively. If these changes occur, labor needed during the harvest will fall as much as 50 percent between 1972 and 1978. In 1972, flue-cured tobacco management units averaged 9.5 acres in the study area, or about three times the size of the average flue-cured tobacco allotment. Close to 60 percent of these units use some harvest system that differs from the more traditional methods: • 8 percent — bulk barns • 47 percent — machines to tie tobacco leaves on sticks • 30 percent — priming aids • 20 percent — traditional methods Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 54 Number: 307522 Creation-Date: 1975-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307522 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307522/files/aer277.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307522 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Author-Name: Foreign Agricultural Service Author-Name: Agricultural Marketing Service Title: The Impact of Dairy Imports on the U.S. Dairy Industry Abstract: Three trade alternatives are examined for the U.S. dairy industry: (1) a continuation of the existing dairy price support systems and import quotas, (2) free trade in dairy products for all countries, and (3) an open U.S. market with no domestic price supports or import quotas for dairy products. The estimated impact of these policies is shown on: levels of imports into the United States; U.S. milk production, consumption, and prices; net cash income; and number and size of dairy farms and processing plants. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 89 Number: 307523 Creation-Date: 1975-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307523 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307523/files/aer278.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307523 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mattson, C. Dudley Title: Effect of the Small Watershed Program on Major Uses of Land: Examination of 60 Projects in the Southeast, Mississippi Delta, and Missouri River Tributaries Regions Abstract: Land use changes in 1955-70 on sample areas with installed P.L. 566 Small watershed Improvement projects are compared with sample areas having planned but undeveloped projects, using aerial photographs. Cropland retirement on upland portions of watersheds was more rapid on completed projects than on new ones In the Southeast and Mississippi Delta regions. In the Mississippi region, cropland expansion on protected bottomlands of installed projects was well ahead of the rate of planned projects. In the Southeast, cropland expansion failed to take place. Cropland retirement, typical for the region, also failed to take place. In the Missouri River tributaries region, there was no significant change in the predominant cropland use of both upland and bottomland areas after project installation. Widespread increases in soil-conserving practices were noted on all projects studied in the Missouri River tributaries region. Planners anticipating land use changes from project development should consider additional factors that could modify the expectations of benefited landowners, such as (1) likely available capital and labor for land conversions, (2) size and organization of farm enterprises, and (3) long-term demands for crops suited to climate, soils, and configurations of benefited areas. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 65 Number: 307524 Creation-Date: 1975-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307524 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307524/files/aer279.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307524 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Penn, J. B. Author-Name: Irwin, George D. Title: Constrained Input-Output Simulations of Energy Restrictions in the Food and Fiber System Abstract: The energy shortages of the recent past have prompted a keen awareness of the pervasiveness of direct and indirect energy utilization in the domestic economy. Analysis of the relationship of energy to various components of the economic system requires treatment of the components in a total economic setting. Since the United States has a consistent set of national income accounts and their production account transforms into a sectoral input-output (I/O) tableau, I/O techniques appear to be a feasible way of incorporating this interrelatedness. The model utilized in this study is the readily available I/O construct incorporated into a linear programming framework and appended with BTU energy requirements and employment and value-added data. The impacts of energy resource shortages are explored for a representation of the food and fiber system in the context of sector interdependence. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 19 Number: 307525 Creation-Date: 1977-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307525 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307525/files/aer280.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307525 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Author-Name: Pfaff, Martin Title: Consumer Satisfaction with Food Products and Marketing Services Abstract: A nationwide survey was conducted in March 1974 to measure consumer opinions concerning their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with food products, how these are sold in stores, and how well the food industry meets the consumer's demands. Questionnaires were completed by 1,831 households, or 72 percent of the eligible number in the sample. In each household, the person primarily responsible for food buying was interviewed. Generally, respondents expressed a high overall level of satisfaction with food products and foodstores. But probing beneath the surface unearthed several areas of frustration and dissatisfaction. Consumers evidently separate specific sources of dissatisfaction from their favorable overall evaluation of food products and stores. Price stood out as the most obvious source of displeasure but here too, the intensity of dissatisfaction differed significantly across products. Consumers also expressed dissatisfaction with the availability and reliability of product and shopping information. People most likely to be dissatisfied live in the Northeast, are less than 55 years old, have attended college, work outside the home, earn over $15,000 and live in the suburbs in larger households. Respondents generally were more satisfied with dairy products and eggs, bakery and cereal products, and processed fruits and vegetables than with convenience foods, fresh fruits and vegetables, and meat and poultry. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 58 Number: 307526 Creation-Date: 1975-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307526 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307526/files/aer281.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307526 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jesse, Edward V. Title: Packing California Mature Green Tomatoes: Costs and Efficiencies Abstract: Costs for a model California packinghouse for mature green tomatoes vary by packing technique employed. Assuming a constant 400-hour packing season and plant operating at 70 percent of maximum capacity (capacity equals 30 tons of fruit dumped per hour), costs may range from $3.56 to $3.82 per hundredweight of packable fruit. Lowest costs were achieved by using dry bin dumping, belt sizing for all fruit, automatic volume filling of No. 1 greens, and manual volume filling for vine-ripes. Highest costs were associated with a combination of trailer dumping, weight sizing, manual filling of No. 1 greens, and place packing of vine-ripes. Total investment for the model packinghouse using the least-cost combination of techniques was about $310,000 on a replacement cost basis. This included $27,500 for land and site preparation, $125,450 for buildings, and $155,700 for equipment. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 34 Number: 307527 Creation-Date: 1975-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307527 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307527/files/aer282.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307527 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, Helen W. Title: American Indians in Transition Abstract: The American Indian population is in a period of transition. It is young, growing, and becoming more urban. There were some improvements in income, housing, education, and health in the 1960-70 decade, but Indians remain the most disadvantaged of the minority ethnic groups in the United States. By most of the above measures, Indians, especially rural Indians, are not as well off as the U.S. population as a whole. But the Indian people are moving toward self-determination, or self-government, in programs to enhance their lives. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Health Economics and Policy, Labor and Human Capital Length: 41 Number: 307528 Creation-Date: 1975-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307528 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307528/files/aer283.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307528 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Morrison, Fred L. Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: State and Federal Legal Regulation of Alien and Corporate Land Ownership and Farm Operation Abstract: Existing State and Federal regulation of alien and corporate ownership of farmland and operation of farms in the United States is examined. Few States have substantial regulation of alien investment in real estate, and even in these States, constitutional and practical limitations blunt its effectiveness. There is no generally applicable Federal regulation of alien investment, although some Federal laws limit sale or lease of Federal property to aliens and other laws restrict dealings with hostile aliens. Six States have substantial limitations on corporate ownership of farmland or involvement in farming operations. There are no Federal laws in this area. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Farm Management, Land Economics/Use Length: 106 Number: 307529 Creation-Date: 1975-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307529 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307529/files/aer284.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307529 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Author-Name: Shaw, Dale L. Author-Name: Heron, Betty K. Title: Cotton Gin Operating Costs in the San Joaquin Valley of California - 1971/72 and 1972/73 Abstract: A comparative study of 41 sample gins in the San Joaquin Valley of California in 1972/73 with the previous season revealed higher overall averages in rated ginning capacities, annual volumes ginned, and in plant capacity utilization. Operating cost averages, per bale, ranged from $16.27 for out-of-pocket to $21.64 for total standardized costs; down $2.59 and $5.03, respectively, from 1971/72. Ginning revenues from all sources combined, for independents and some cooperatives in the sample, were almost identical both seasons. A stepwise multiple linear regression analysis revealed that volume ginned was the most influential factor in determining annual gin operating costs. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 14 Number: 307530 Creation-Date: 1975-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307530 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307530/files/aer285.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307530 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shaw, Dale L. Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Author-Name: Heron, Betty K. Title: Cotton Gin Operating Costs in West Texas, the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and the Blacklands of Texas, 1971 and 1972 Seasons Abstract: Capacity utilization and operating costs were analyzed for a sample of 90 gins representing about 19 percent of both total ginning capacity and total volume ginned in West Texas, the Lover Rio Grande Valley, and the Blacklands of Texas. Average ginning volumes were up in 1972. Compared to 1971, the 1972 weighted average total costs per bale were down 20 percent in West Texas, down 2 percent in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and down 8 percent in the Blacklands. Out-of-pocket costs per bale were lower in West Texas, higher In the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and lower in the Blacklands. A stepwise multiple linear regression analysis reveals that volume ginned and investment in buildings and equipment are the most influential factors in determining annual gin operating costs. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 18 Number: 307531 Creation-Date: 1975-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307531 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307531/files/aer286.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307531 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kampe, Ronald E. Title: Household Income--How It Relates to Substandard Housing in Rural and Farmers Home Administration Areas, by State and Race, 1970 Abstract: Analysis of income levels of occupants of housing served by the Farmers Home Administration (FmHA) reveals that substandard housing is mainly occupied by the poor. Householders with less than $4,000 income in 1970 made up 28.6 percent of the FmHA area households, but occupied 61.6 percent of the housing without complete plumbing. Inadequate housing, however, is not entirely associated with low income. Householders with incomes of $10,000 or more occupied 6.9 percent of FmHA area housing without complete plumbing. White occupants are usually more adequately housed than minority races, regardless of income. For example, only 24 percent of rural white households with incomes below $4,000 occupied housing lacking complete plumbing. Comparable figures for black households were 73 percent and for other races, 52 percent. Of households with incomes above $8,000, 4 percent of the white, 31 percent of the black, and 11 percent of other races lived in houses without complete plumbing. Geographically, inadequate housing is located mainly in Southeastern States and other States with large minority populations. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics Length: 37 Number: 307532 Creation-Date: 1975-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307532 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307532/files/aer287.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307532 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thiemann, Otto P. Title: The Small Watershed Program and Its Role in Community Development Abstract: Community leaders in a study of eight watersheds ranked education ahead of health, roads, and streets, and erosion and flood control as the most valuable public service categories of community development. Under the water resource categories, respondents rated water channel development first in importance and land treatment second. More than 98 percent of the leaders favored the Small Watershed Program. Suggested changes in the program were to reduce the time needed to plan and install projects, build structures to physical capacity, emphasize other uses of water, and assure public access to reservoirs. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 82 Number: 307533 Creation-Date: 1975-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307533 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307533/files/aer288.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307533 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Larkin, L. C. Title: Marketing Practices and Price Spreads for Sugar, 1960-72 Abstract: During 1960-72, the retail price of refined sugar increased 22 percent, while the farmer’s share of the consumer's dollar increased from 36 to 42 percent. Returns to sugarbeet and sugarcane growers in all domestic production areas increased. This increase ranged from 1.37 cents per pound in Florida to 1.74 cents per pound in the Central sugarbeet region. The refiner's share of the marketing spread increased in all areas. The distribution and retailers' share of the marketing spread decreased, in some instances as much as 2 cents per pound. This report is based on information on the farm-to-retail spread for sugar in 25 major U.S. cities between 1960-72. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 55 Number: 307534 Creation-Date: 1975-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307534 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307534/files/aer289.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307534 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davis, Richard N. Author-Name: Green, Bernal L. Author-Name: Redfern, J. Martin Title: Low-Income Rural People in East Central Arkansas Face Roadblocks to Jobs Abstract: Records from several sources revealed that 228 of 742 persons completing a Title III-B Economic Opportunity Act job training program during 1967-71 had obtained employment. Of the 228, a sample of 104 was located and interviewed, with 74 (46 blacks, 28 whites) still employed in 1971, and with 29 (9 whites, 20 blacks) who had previously been employed being unemployed in 1971. The main roadblocks to jobs during the year ending July 1971 were "could not find suitable work," and "laid off from work." Reasons for leaving their first job after III-B training also centered on being laid off from work (32 percent), but included transportation problems (15 percent). In addition to these 104 respondents, a random sample of 30 persons (2 whites, 28 blacks) was used to represent the remaining 514 trainees who had failed to obtain employment. This last group of 30 tended to be black, unmarried, separated, or divorced females with children. They had experienced unemployment during the year ending July 1971 mainly because of inability to find suitable work (70 percent), and ill health (13 percent). Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 39 Number: 307535 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307535 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307535/files/aer290.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307535 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frey, H. Thomas Author-Name: Otte, Robert C. Title: Cropland for Today and Tomorrow Abstract: After more than two decades of agricultural surpluses and Federal supply management programs, strong demand for food products in 1973 resulted in suspension of the Federal land set-aside programs. By 1974, virtually all acreage formerly diverted had been released and most good quality, readily usable acreage was brought back into production. This study summarizes recent changes in cropland use and evaluates additional land, mainly pasture and forest, that could be converted to crop production. But several factors will likely retard the rate of development of new land. These include size of tract, ownership patterns, ease and scale of development, crop alternatives, and competition from other uses. Existing and potential cropland are discussed within a regional context. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 23 Number: 307536 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307536 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307536/files/aer291.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307536 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, J. B. Author-Name: Davis, Gary A. Author-Name: Martin, J. Rod Author-Name: Gee, C. Kerry Title: Economic Impacts of Controlling Surface Water Runoff from Fed-Beef Production Facilities Abstract: Fed-beef producers in the United States face substantial investments and increased operating costs in complying with effluent limitations guidelines established by the Environmental Protection Agency. This study was designed to provide indications of the extent of fed-beef operation runoff problems and capital investments and annual costs to producers attributable to compliance. It was initiated prior to the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, which established the guidelines. Findings indicate that total capital investment for facilities and equipment needed to control runoff problems in the 18 leading fed-beef producing States would range from $132 to $136 million. Annual added production costs would total $20 million. About half of the marketings in these 18 States came from operations with less than 1,000 head capacity in 1972. Costs would fall heaviest on these small operators. In the Eastern States, the average investment per head of capacity for runoff control would average $21 for 100-199 head capacity feedlots and $3 for lots with capacities of 1,000 head or more. In the Western States, investment would average $22 for operations of less than 1,000 head capacity. For larger operations it would average from $1 to $4 per head. Costs per head drop sharply for larger operations in both the Eastern and Western States. Some small-capacity operations in the East may not be able to continue production if they are required to comply with EPA guidelines. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 45 Number: 307537 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307537 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307537/files/aer292.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307537 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Peterson, Hans P. Author-Name: Buse, Rueben C. Title: A Bibliography on the Theory and Research on Household Expenditures Abstract: Designed as an aid in researching household expenditures, this Annotated bibliography contains features which permit quickly locating particular studies. The features include a numbering system for the annotations which date a particular citation relative to other entries, a keyword index, a commodity index, an author index, an index of data sources, and a one-paragraph synopsis which is frequently cross referenced to other relevant articles in the bibliography. In addition, the bibliography contains all of the biographical information normally contained in similar works. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 46 Number: 307538 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307538 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307538/files/aer293.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307538 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Burns, Alfred J. Author-Name: Podany, Joseph C. Title: Prices and Spreads for Selected Fruits Sold Fresh in Major Markets, 1967/68 - 1973/74 Abstract: Prices and spreads are presented for Washington Red Delicious apples, eastern Red Delicious apples, midwestern Jonathan apples, Washington Winesap apples, Florida grapefruit, California Thompson Seedless grapes, California lemons, Florida oranges, California navel oranges, and California Valencia oranges, all sold fresh in major markets for six marketing seasons -- 1967/68 to 1972/73. Prices and spreads for 1973/74 are also presented for Florida grapefruit, and all apples, and oranges except California Valencia. Seasonal average retail price, shipping point price, and the total marketing spread for all fruits covered increased during 1967/68-1972/73. The weighted average retail price increased 17 percent, from 22.4 cents a pound in 1967/68 to 26.3 cents in 1972/73. Shipping point price (grower and packer return) increased 8 percent, from 10o6 cents a pound in 1967/68 to 11.4 cents in 1972/73, The total marketing spread increased 26 percent, from 11.8 cents a pound in 1967/68 to 14.9 cents in 1972/73. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 122 Number: 307539 Creation-Date: 1975-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307539 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307539/files/aer295.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307539 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Blake, Helen T. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Title: Farmer's Use of Pesticides In 1971... Expenditures Abstract: Farmers' total expenditures on pesticides in 1971 exceeded $1 billion, nearly 80 percent more than in 1966. Based on a 1972 survey of 8,600 U.S. farmers (Alaska excluded), crop protection required $943 million in pesticides, 86 percent higher than in 1966. By type of pesticide, herbicides made up 62 percent of total crop pesticide costs; insecticides, almost 26 percent; fungicides, over 6 percent; and other types, 6 percent. Costs for pesticides used on livestock and their surroundings reached over $44 million, close to a 50-percent rise over 1966 costs. Pesticide expenses for other farm uses amounted to $15 million. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 49 Number: 307540 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307540 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307540/files/aer296.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307540 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hines, Fred K. Title: Factors Related to Participation in the Food Stamp Program Abstract: This report examines factors related to differences in the percentages of county population participating in the Food Stamp Program among U.S. counties in May 1970. Factors associated with higher food stamp participation rates were higher unemployment and welfare program participation rates, greater proportion of households with low Income, a higher percentage of population 17 years or younger, and longer participation of the county in the Food Stamp Program. Factors associated with lower food stamp participation rates included greater labor force participation and a higher percentage of population 65 and older. The presence of a direct food distribution program prior to the county’s participation in the Food Stamp Program had little discernible effect. Despite higher participation rates in counties with higher percentages of minorities and the more rural of the nonmetropolltan counties, when other factors affecting participation rates are held constant--mainly percentage in poverty--the analysis suggests that participation in these counties was not as high as in counties with smaller percentages of minorities or in more urban counties. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Security and Poverty, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 33 Number: 307541 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307541 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307541/files/aer298.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307541 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wunderlich, Gene Title: Land Along the Blue Ridge: Ownership and Use of Land In Rappahannock County, Virginia Abstract: A survey of landowners in Rappahannock County, Va., provided information on ownership, land use, and owners' opinions concerning public services and future outlook for the county. More than half the landowners have their legal residence outside the county, but residents own over half of the land. Nonresidents are more likely to hold land for recreation or resale than local residents. Forty-three percent of the owners are in professional, technical, or managerial occupations; only 5 percent class themselves as farmers. Agricultural activity is declining, and sales of land in small parcels can lead to the disappearance of agriculture. Nonresidents expressed more interest than residents in retaining the rural atmosphere of the county, but they were less critical and less informed about public services than residents were. Many residents and nonresidents seem unaware of existing State and county land use controls. Public policy can play a role in land use, but final decisions are made by landowners. An improved land information system could help both community leaders and landowners in planning future development of the county so that the attractive aspects are preserved. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 39 Number: 307542 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307542 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307542/files/aer299.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307542 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul Title: Evaluation of Pesticide Supplies and Demand for 1974, 1975, and 1976 Abstract: This report provides information on (1) pesticide production difficulties in 1974 and 1975 and their effects on pesticide supplies, and (2) pesticide demand estimates for the same years. Producers that accounted for about 75 percent of the basic farm pesticide production in 1971 were surveyed. Regional pesticide distributors covering most of the United States were also contacted for information on pesticide distribution and local availability. Many pesticide producers had difficulty achieving planned output for some pesticides in 1974. Output of about half of the pesticides produced fell below producers' goals, and overall production was about 10 percent below planned output. At the same time, the demand for pesticides increased an estimated 15 percent in 1974 over 1973. Thus, there was a tight supply demand situation with serious shortages of some products. The situation for 1975 is substantially improved with a 10-percent increase in production, but demand is holding at about Iast year's levels. Supplies of most pesticides should be adequate, or nearly so, in 1975. Additional production capacity should be on stream, and raw material shortages should have a smaller impact in 1976. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Productivity Analysis Length: 24 Number: 307543 Creation-Date: 1975-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307543 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307543/files/aer300.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307543 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ghetti, Joseph L. Title: Cotton Gin Operating Costs in the Midsouth, 1972/73 and 1973/74 Abstract: Cotton gin operating costs in the Midsouth were analyzed for 1972/73 and 1973/74 on the basis of a sample of 48 and 50 plants, respectively, representing about 7 percent of the total ginning capacity of the region. Average capacity utilization of the sample gins decreased from 64 percent in 1972/73 to 58 percent in 1973/74. Average total cost per bale increased 16 percent, from $19.28 to $22.45. When adjustments were made for the differences in volumes ginned, the cost increase for 1973/74 was $0.43, compared with a $1.41 increase during the 1972/73 season. Total out-of-pocket cost for 1973/74 rose $1.42 per bale over the previous year. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 11 Number: 307544 Creation-Date: 1975-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307544 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307544/files/aer301.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307544 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: Foreign Firms with Investments in the U.S. Food and Fiber System Abstract: This report contains names of foreign parent companies believed to be involved in the U.S. food and fiber system, names and addresses of their U.S. subsidiaries, and an indication of the products they handle. Countries of origin and U.S. addresses are given. Since foreign direct investment in U.S. farming and the food and fiber system is of very recent interest, the list of firms is not exhaustive but provides a basic point of departure for study of the topic. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 106 Number: 307545 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307545 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307545/files/aer302.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307545 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crom, Richard Author-Name: Sullivan, James Title: Effects of Changes in Vertical Coordination on Pork Production and Prices Abstract: The performance of the hog industry under the existing vertical coordination structure is projected from 1973 through 1985. Then, seven alternative situations for the coordination of hog production are introduced into the model, and these results are simulated over the same projection period. The alternatives simulated are: (1) increased output through addition of several "hog factories", (2) production contracts, (3) a shift in industry structure to large production units, (4) the addition of a price incentive to large production units, (5) stop-loss contracts, (6) pricing on the basis of pork values, (7) and a marketing contract for quality production with an appropriate market incentive. The 13-year base-line projection traces out one minor and two major production cycles. Pork production per capita averages near current levels--66 pounds over the 13-year period. None of the simulated forms of alternative coordination schemes alters the three cycles projected. However, with the exception of the addition of hog factories, all of the alternatives tend to restrict output with higher prices. With restricted output, geographic concentration of production would usually increase and relatively more production would occur in the established corn-hog areas Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 29 Number: 307546 Creation-Date: 1975-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307546 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307546/files/aer303.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307546 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Walker, Rodney L. Author-Name: Sharples, Jerry Title: Reserve Stocks of Grain: A Review of Research Abstract: Research and theory related to reserve stocks accumulation is reviewed. The objectives of holding reserves, storage rules, market conditions, and evaluation of storage rules in achieving objectives are considered. Major conclusions are: There is no one optimal stocks policy; in future models to analyze alternative stocks policies, the demand portion heeds to incorporate a more thorough demand-for-U.S.-exports component; future studies should examine substitutability in demand for all food and feed grains and oilseeds; supply, in addition to being considered a function of stochastic yields, should also be defined as a function of planted acres, where acreage responds to market conditions and public farm programs; and public vs. private control needs to be examined Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 29 Number: 307547 Creation-Date: 1975-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307547 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307547/files/aer304.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307547 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Spurlock, Hughes H. Title: Differences in Housing Credit Terms and Usage Between Metro and Nonmetro Areas in the United States, 1971 Abstract: Analysis of 1971 census data on existing mortgages shows home buyers in rural areas paid higher interest rates on conventional mortgages and had shorter repayment periods than did their urban counterparts. They also had fewer choices of lenders. Even so, it appears credit conditions did improve during the 1960's in rural areas. Savings and loan associations, the major home mortgage lenders, became more active in rural areas. They held 35 percent of the first mortgages in 1971 as compared with 23 percent in 1960. Also, Federal agencies, particularly Farmers Home Administration, expanded activities in rural areas. This expansion tended to narrow the gap between the percentage of loans guaranteed and insured in rural areas as compared to metro areas. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics Length: 24 Number: 307550 Creation-Date: 1975-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307550 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307550/files/aer305.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307550 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brown, David L. Title: Socioeconomic Characteristics of Growing and Declining Nonmetropolitan Counties, 1970 Abstract: Population decline can adversely affect an area's social and economic composition, its age structure, the structure of its labor force, and its ability to generate income to support essential programs and activities. Counties with declining population have a deficit of working age population and a relatively high proportion of dependent age groups. Declining counties trail the growing counties in family income, labor force participation by females, and employment in manufacturing; they are characterized by much higher than average employment in low-wage and low-skill extractive industries. A substantial number of counties that declined during the 1960's are currently experiencing population growth. Hence, population decline is not necessarily irreversible; not all declining areas are being bypassed by the process of national economic growth. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 50 Number: 307551 Creation-Date: 1975-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307551 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307551/files/aer306.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307551 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Doeksen, Gerald A. Author-Name: Holmes, O. W. Author-Name: Kuehn, John Author-Name: Perkinson, Leon Author-Name: Voelker, Stan Title: The Role of Multicounty Development Districts in Rural Areas Abstract: Multicounty development districts or planning organizations contribute to rural development by providing services and expertise usually available to large cities but beyond the financial and technical/professional resources of small towns and rural areas. Ten organizations in Missouri, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and South Dakota were studied to determine their structure, funding, functions, and services performed. Their responsibilities fall mainly into three categories--planning, clearinghouse responsibilities, and technical assistance. Membership in all but one unit, which was formed for a specific purpose, covered 4-10 counties each. An increasingly important function of these organizations is providing clearinghouse services related to applications for Federal cost-share funds for planning and development. Such a procedure allows State, regional, and local agencies to study the proposals and raise questions or objections. In this way, duplicating, conflicting, or overlapping projects can be eliminated or changed as needed. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics Length: 55 Number: 307552 Creation-Date: 1975-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307552 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307552/files/aer307.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307552 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Smith, Edward J. Title: Employment Changes in the Flue-Cured Tobacco Area, 1960-70 Abstract: This study describes employment changes in the flue-cured tobacco area between 1960 and 1970, based on the latest Population Census figures available. The region is composed of 45 multicounty districts in Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. Employment in production of flue-cured tobacco declined sharply, dropping by 41 percent between 1965 and 1972. Between 1960 and 1970 the area's agricultural employment was cut in half, while employment in nonfarm sectors grew 30.5 percent. Farm employment dropped and nonfarm employment rose in all districts of the area. The study used as a measure of the local nonfarm economy's capacity to absorb surplus farmworkers the ratio of nonfarm employment gains to farm employment losses. This varied widely from district to district. The districts with the most rapid growth in total employment tended to be those with a small proportion of employment in agriculture. Total employment in the area rose by some 750,000 during the period. The service sectors as a group were the biggest contributors, adding 382,800 jobs; agriculture lost 217,600 jobs, the most for any sector. A shift-share analysis determined that a considerable amount of employment was concentrated in sectors that, on the national level, were slow growing. However, most sectors in the area grew faster than their national counterparts and the growth rate of the area economy exceeded that of the Nation. The area economy made a net shift during the decade toward faster growing sectors. The study found no relationship between a district's degree of economic specialization in 1970 and its rate of employment growth. The manufacturing sector for the area became more diversified during the decade, as it did in 41 of the 45 districts. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital Length: 45 Number: 307553 Creation-Date: 1975-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307553 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307553/files/aer309.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307553 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Forsht, R. Gar Author-Name: Jansma, J. Dean Title: Economic and Population Growth in Small Central Place Areas of Pennsylvania Abstract: This study examines regional economic growth and development in Pennsylvania, with major emphasis on rural areas. The overall results indicate that many of the smaller rural areas in Pennsylvania are viable economic entities. The findings generally support the theory of balanced economic growth. The rate of population growth from 1960 to 1970 was used to examine the economic activity of central place areas. A central place area consists of a central place (borough or city) plus its complementary or hinterland area. The results obtained, using multiple regression analysis, indicate that the percentage of workers employed in manufacturing durable goods (such as furniture, machinery, and metal products) and manufacturing nondurable goods (such as food, apparel, rubber, and plastic products) industries was highly correlated with the rate of an area's population growth. It was also found that the higher rates of population growth occurred in the smaller rural areas, which tended to attract the low-wage, nondurable goods industries. The economic activity of the areas oriented to the natural resource based industries of agriculture and mining were also examined. The agricultural areas were found to be scattered through the State; population was growing in these areas. Conversely, mining areas were concentrated in the northeast and west-central parts of the State; these areas were losing population. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 43 Number: 307554 Creation-Date: 1975-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307554 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307554/files/aer310.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307554 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edwards, Clark Author-Name: DePass, Rudolph Title: Alternative Futures for Nonmetropolitan Population, Income, Employment, and Capital Abstract: A simulation of population, income, employment, and capital in the nonmetropolitan and metropolitan sectors suggests that 1960-70 trends were leading to equal per capita incomes between the two sectors by the year 2000, and to abatement of the rapid nonmetropolitan outmigration. Changes during 1970-73 indicate that economic opportunities in the nonmetropolitan sector advanced in response to increased propensity to join the labor force, increased capacity to create jobs, and improved resource productivity. However, these changes explained only part of the apparent reversal in net migration. The balance remains to be explained outside the model. Simulation of seven types of strategies which might be pursued by the Federal Government to attain 1990 income targets indicated that each strategy had some potential for raising nonmetropolitan income; but each used in isolation displayed undesirable side effects on migration, dependency, unemployment, wages, or the level of general business activity. A multifaceted problem required a mixed strategy. Programs were most important in the mixed strategy which promoted joining the labor force, creating jobs, and increasing resource productivity. Programs to enhance capital accumulation above trend and expand markets had small multipliers. Programs to directly influence migration or natural increase were not required. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 63 Number: 307555 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307555 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307555/files/aer311.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307555 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoffman, L. A. Author-Name: Boles, P. P. Author-Name: Hutchinson, T. Q. Title: Livestock Trucking Services: Quality, Adequacy, and Shipment Patterns Abstract: For-hire truck service experienced by shippers of beef cattle and calves during 1972 was examined. Factors studied include major flow patterns of beef cattle, availability of for-hire truck service, extent of and reasons for shippers entering private carriage, channels through which shippers contact truckers, condition of animals after truck transport (including weight and death loss), and shippers' satisfaction with for-hire truck service. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries Length: 55 Number: 307556 Creation-Date: 1975-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307556 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307556/files/aer312.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307556 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jesse, E. V. Author-Name: Schultz, W. G. Author-Name: Bomben, J. L. Title: Decentralized Tomato Processing: Plant Design, Costs, and Economic Feasibility Abstract: Excerpts from the report Summary: The report considers decentralized or satellite plant processing of tomatoes as an alternative to conventional processing methods. An acreage distribution pattern typifying conditions for a California plant determined that cost savings exceeding $200,000 could be achieved by initially processing a portion of total raw product requirements at one optimally-located satellite. Addition of subsequent satellites yielded successively smaller cost reductions. Estimated plant establishment costs were approximately $1.2 million as of early 1974, while variable operating charges (labor and supplies) were about $150 per hour at capacity operation. Comparing cost savings with establishment costs for a model plant indicates an investment recovery period of about 5-1/2 years, and an internal annual rate of return of 12.7 percent for one satellite if satellite capacity replaces existing plant capacity. Return on investment is more attractive if satellites are used to expand productive capacity. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 60 Number: 307557 Creation-Date: 1975 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307557 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307557/files/aer313.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307557 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ferguson, Walter L. Title: Farmers' Expenditures for Custom Pesticide Services, 1971 Abstract: In 1971, farmers spent $428 million for custom pesticide services in the United States; $154 million were spent on application and the rest for pesticide materials. About 98 percent of the expenditures for custom services were for crops and the remainder were for livestock and other farm uses. The largest expenditures for custom pesticide services were on corn and cotton, which together accounted for about 45 percent of the U.S. total for crops . The Pacific and Corn Belt regions accounted for over a third of the total for all crops. Farmers grossing over $40,000 spent about 60 percent of the total expenditures on crops. Average expenditures per farm ranged from under $450 for farmers grossing less than $20,000 to about $4,400 for those grossing $100,000 or more. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 36 Number: 307558 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307558 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307558/files/aer314.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307558 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Milk Pricing Abstract: Excerpt from the report Introduction: Over the past 100 years, a complex pricing system has evolved to deal with the problems of coordinating, pricing, and distributing milk. All the various government and private institutions making up the system are designed to work together to insure that the public gets the milk it wants, while the dairy farmer gets the returns he needs to stay in business. The very complexity of the system, however, has baffled many and led to numerous misconceptions. This report aims to help dispel these misconceptions by explaining how the pricing structure is set up and how it works Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis Length: 19 Number: 307559 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307559 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307559/files/aer315.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307559 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Author-Name: Shaw, Dale L. Author-Name: Heron, Betty K. Title: Cotton Gin Operating Costs in the San Joaquin Valley of California, 1973/74 Abstract: A survey of 39 sample gins in the San Joaquin Valley of California in 1973/74 revealed no change from the previous season in average rated ginning capacities, but lower averages in annual volumes ginned and plant capacity utilization. Operating cost averages, per bale, ranged from $19.39 for out-of-pocket to $25.23 for total standardized costs—up $3.12 and $3.59, respectively, from 1972/73. Ginning revenues, per bale, from all sources combined, for independents and some cooperatives in the sample, were up almost $8.00 over last season. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 13 Number: 307560 Creation-Date: 1975-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307560 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307560/files/aer316.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307560 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Chandler, Whitman M., Jr. Author-Name: Glade, Edward H., Jr. Title: Shippers' Cost of Merchandising U.S. Cotton, 1972/73 Season Abstract: Detailed estimates of the major costs of merchandising American cotton during the 1972/73 season are provided. The weighted average total cost to assemble and distribute American cotton to all outlets was $26.98 per bale. Costs were also developed from each of four regions and three market trading areas in each region to 10 specific outlets, both domestic and foreign. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 23 Number: 307561 Creation-Date: 1975-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307561 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307561/files/aer317.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307561 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shaw, Dale L. Author-Name: Wilmot, Charles A. Author-Name: Heron, Betty K. Title: Cotton Gin Operating Costs in West Texas, the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and the Blacklands of Texas, 1973 Season Abstract: Compared with the 1972 season, average ginning volumes and rates of capacity utilization in the 1973 season were substantially higher for cotton gins in West Texas, appreciably lower in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and essentially unchanged in the Blacklands. Weighted average total costs per bale, compared with the 1972 season, were: West Texas--$25.00, down 4 percent; Lower Rio Grande Valley--$35.13, up 51 percent; and the Blacklands--$25.74, up 12 percent. Weighted average out-of-pocket costs per bale, compared with the previous season, were $0.08 lower in West Texas, $9.64 higher in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, and $.2.78 higher in the Blacklands. During the 1973 season, average ginning revenues per bale from all sources were: West Texas--$40.95, Lower Rio Grande Valley--$45.97, and Blacklands--$35.25. The resulting per bale weighted average profit margins above total costs were West Texas--$15.75, the Lower Rio Grande Valley--$10.84, and the Blacklands--$9.51. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 19 Number: 307562 Creation-Date: 1975-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307562 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307562/files/aer318.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307562 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Banks, Vera J. Title: Farm Population Estimates for 1974 Abstract: An average of 9,264,000 persons lived on farms in rural areas of the United States in the 12-month period centered on April 1974. This was a decline of 208,000 from a year earlier. Although not statistically significant, the drop represents an apparent continuation of a longtime downward trend. Since 1970, the farm population has declined at an average annual rate of 1.2 percent. The South continues to be the heaviest loser of farm population among U.S. regions. For the 1970-74 period, the average net loss to the farm population through migration and reclassification of residence from farm to nonfarm was 143,000 per year. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 7 Number: 307563 Creation-Date: 1975-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307563 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307563/files/aer319.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307563 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Paul, Allen B. Author-Name: Heifner, Richard G. Author-Name: Helmuth, John W. Title: Farmers' Use of Forward Contracts and Futures Markets Abstract: The study describes and evaluates the different types of forward contracting arrangements available to farmers. The advantages and problems in using cash forward contracts and futures contracts in the farm business are examined. Factors to be considered in deciding whether and how to contract are reviewed. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 31 Number: 307564 Creation-Date: 1976-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307564 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307564/files/aer320.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307564 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sibold, Ann Gordon Title: Taxes Levied on Farm Personal Property Abstract: U.S. totals for farm tangible personal property taxes increased from $286.1 million in 1960 to $424.9 million in 1972. This was an increase of 48.5 percent, or about 4.0 percent annually. Arkansas had the highest 12-year rate of increase at 153.2 percent, followed by California at 150.0 percent. As a proportion of the total farm property tax burden (real plus personal property), personal property taxes have exhibited some pronounced cyclical fluctuations since 1924. In 1972, they accounted for 15.1 percent of the total farm property tax bill. More States are exempting farm personal property from taxation. By 1972, 11 States had totally exempted it. Many of the other 39 States exempted one or more of the four commonly taxed classes of farm personalty: 4 exempted livestock, 4 exempted farm machinery, 18 exempted motor vehicles, and 24 exempted household goods. Personal property taxes during 1967-72 increased on livestock and farm machinery, and decreased on motor vehicles and household goods. Since 1950, real and personal property taxes have increased significantly as a percentage of gross farm income and of net farm income. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Production Economics, Public Economics Length: 15 Number: 307565 Creation-Date: 1976-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307565 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307565/files/aer321.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307565 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Henderson, Peter L. Title: Butter and Cheese: Sales Changes Associated with Three Levels of Promotion Abstract: Butter and cheese sales related to three levels of promotion investment were compared to sales with no promotion. The study period was May 1972-July 1973. For cheese, annual investments of 6 and 9 cents per capita produced sales gains of 15-18 percent in the test markets. Butter sales rose about 4.5 percent at the 9-cent promotion level, but showed no gains at lower levels, apparently because of the effect of counterpromotions for oleomargarine. Projecting test market results to all U.S. supermarkets gave an increase of 244 million pounds in annual cheese sales, or the equivalent of 24.4 million hundredweight of fluid milk, for a promotion cost of $12 million, or 50 cents per hundredweight for the additional milk sold. For butter, the increase would be 21 million pounds, unadjusted for oleomargarine advertising. The milk equivalent would be 4.5 million hundredweight, and the cost of the national promotion campaign, $18 million. Adjusted for oleomargarine counterpromotion, the increase in butter sales would be 60 million pounds, or 12.7 million hundredweight of milk equivalent. The value of added milk sales would be about $100 million, for a promotion cost of about $1.42 per hundredweight. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 39 Number: 307566 Creation-Date: 1976-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307566 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307566/files/aer322.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307566 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fuguitt, Glenn V. Author-Name: Beale, Calvin L. Title: Population Change in Nonmetropolitan Cities and Towns Abstract: Patterns of population change between 1950-60 and 1960-70 are analyzed for U.S. nonmetropolitan incorporated cities and towns. Ranging in size from less than 100 up to 50,000 population, they included over 30 million people in 1970, or about one-half of the total population living outside metropolitan areas. For this study, a constant geographic boundary is maintained and the research relates to places outside metropolitan areas as defined in 1963. Variations in population growth are examined by size groupings and other variables such as regional location, presence of an interstate highway, distance from a metropolitan central city, and annexation. Results from both the 1950's and 1960's indicate that any general view of small towns as declining or dying is grossly inaccurate. Places in nonmetropolitan areas grew in population 14 percent in 1950-60 and 10 percent in 1960-70; this rate of growth was less rapid than the metropolitan sector, but more rapid than the nonmetropolitan population outside incorporated places. There were growing and declining towns in all size classes, but only the very smallest of village classes witnessed population loss more commonly than growth in the 1960-70 decade. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 19 Number: 307570 Creation-Date: 1976-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307570 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307570/files/aer323.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307570 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rowe, Gene Author-Name: Smith, Leslie Whitener Title: Households Eligible for a National Farmworker Program under the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Abstract: In 1973, there were 169,000 farm wageworkers eligible for a national farmworker program under Title III, Section 303 (a) of the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) (Public Law 92-203, 87 Stat. 839). These workers, representing 6 percent of the total 2.7 million farm wageworkers, resided in 122,000 households (1.4 farmworkers per household). Farmworkers had 191,000 persons under 18 years of age in their households (1.6 per household) also eligible for the program. This report indicates the number and distribution of eligible farmworkers and their dependents by migratory status, ethnic group, earnings, and region. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Consumer/Household Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 37 Number: 307571 Creation-Date: 1976-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307571 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307571/files/aer324.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307571 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zeimetz, Kathryn A. Author-Name: Dillon, Elizabeth Author-Name: Hardy, Ernest E. Author-Name: Otte, Robert C. Title: Dynamics of Land Use in Fast Growth Areas Abstract: Land use and land use changes between 1961 and 1970 were interpreted from Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) 1:20,000 scale photography for 53 rapid-growth counties. In these counties, which experienced about 20 percent of the total U.S. population increase between 1960 and 1970, urban land accounted for 16 percent of the area in 1970, up from 13 percent in 1961. Of land developed for urban use in the 53-county aggregate between 1961 and 1970, 35 percent had been cropland, 28 percent forest, and 33 percent open idle. Regionally, the amount of urban development on various types of rural land differed considerably. While total land in rural uses remained relatively the same over the period, shifts among rural uses were an important aspect of land use change. The average amount of land urbanized per person increase in population for the 53-county total was .173 acres. While this per capita ratio varied regionally, in all regions new urban development occurred at a higher density than had previous urban development. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 53 Number: 307572 Creation-Date: 1976-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307572 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307572/files/aer325.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307572 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rogers, George B. Title: Price Spreads, Costs, and Productivity in Poultry and Egg Marketing, 1955-74 Abstract: This study develops measures of costs, productivity, and returns in the marketing systems for eggs and poultry during 1955-74, using USDA's market basket price spreads series as a base. It also examines the changes in costs and productivity for individual marketing functions and the substitution between various inputs, based on a large number of previous studies. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Productivity Analysis Length: 31 Number: 307573 Creation-Date: 1976-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307573 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307573/files/aer326.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307573 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harrison, Virden L. Title: Do Sunspot Cycles Affect Crop Yields? Abstract: Sunspot activity occurs on a regular cyclical basis. Temperature, precipitation, length of growing season, radiation levels, atmospheric pressure, and high-altitude wind speed in the United States and elsewhere may be related to the single or double sunspot cycle. This study tests the hypothesis that crop yields at the State level are related to various phases of the sunspot cycle. Crops and States included are wheat in Texas and Kansas, corn in Illinois and Nebraska, rice in Louisiana, and cotton in Texas. Statistical analysis was made of data for 1866-1973. Results indicate that (1) lower than average yields are associated with low sunspot activity, especially low activity following the high of the minor sunspot cycle (2) higher than average yields are associated with high sunspot activity, and (3) both the single and double sunspot cycles may give useful information in predictions of yield deviations. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 27 Number: 307575 Creation-Date: 1976-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307575 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307575/files/aer327.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307575 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Developments in Marketing Spreads for Agricultural Products in 1975 Abstract: Marketing spreads accounted for three-fourths of last year's increase of 7 percent in the retail cost of a market basket of farm foods. Marketing spreads averaged 9 percent above 1974, chiefly due to higher marketing charges for crop products. Although last year's gain slowed from the record increase of 20 percent in 1974, it was well above the gains of 6 percent in 1973 and 2 percent in 1972. Returns to farmers for food products averaged about 5 percent higher in 1975 than in 1974, mainly because of strong livestock prices. Farmers received an average of 42 cents of each dollar spent by consumers for farm foods in 1975. This was 1 cent less than in 1974, and 4 cents less than the 46-cent share received in 1973, when it was the highest in more than 20 years. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 33 Number: 307576 Creation-Date: 1976-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307576 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307576/files/aer328.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307576 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E., Jr. Author-Name: Perrin, John Title: Economic Effects of the U.S. Food Stamp Program: Calendar Year 1972 and Fiscal Year 1974 Abstract: The U.S. Department of Commerce 1967 input-output model was adjusted and used to determine the economic impact of expenditures of bonus stamps by food stamp households for calendar year 1972 and fiscal year 1974. In addition, the impact under the bonus stamp provision was compared with the alternative of giving participants an equal amount of cash. Economic impact was measured in terms of changes in business receipts, gross national product, and jobs. In each example, the amount required to fund bonus stamps or the cash grant was obtained by increasing the Federal personal income taxes of taxpayers and reducing their expenditures by an equivalent amount prior to the transfer of bonus stamps or cash to participants. For this reason, the results obtained represent net impact. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Security and Poverty, Labor and Human Capital, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 22 Number: 307577 Creation-Date: 1976-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307577 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307577/files/aer331.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307577 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Title: Evaluation of Pesticide Supplies and Demand for 1976 Abstract: Pesticide supplies for 1976 are ample for nearly all products. Pesticide production is up 10 to 15 percent over last year, and supplies have increased even more because of substantial gains in beginning-year inventories. Prices to dealers are up slightly, but prices to growers are steady to a little below last season. With increased capacity and with few production problems anticipated, supplies next year also should be generous. Supply estimates are based on surveys of pesticide producers and distributors. Demand estimates are based on farmers' 1976 planting intentions and data on pesticide use patterns. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 22 Number: 307578 Creation-Date: 1976-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307578 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307578/files/aer332.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307578 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Russell, Jesse R. Title: Solid Waste Management Systems in the Rural Southeast Abstract: Part of an overall study of rural solid waste systems in the Southeastern United States, this report identifies and describes types and costs of 63 collection and 40 disposal systems used in rural communities and areas. Costs exceeded revenues in each case. Consolidation of small systems into larger, area-wide systems could generate more efficient, less costly operations. A later report will describe alternative systems best suited to small towns of various sizes, provide estimates on the amounts of solid waste to be generated in future years, and systems changes needed to handle this increased load. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Environmental Economics and Policy, Labor and Human Capital, Public Economics Length: 23 Number: 307579 Creation-Date: 1976-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307579 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307579/files/aer333.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307579 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Emerson, Peter M Title: Economic Impact of Water Pollution Control Regulations on the Tomato Processing Industry Abstract: The economic impact of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 on the tomato processing industry is examined. The 1972 Act calls for uniform effluent limitations, and requires that municipalities establish pretreatment standards for waste and recover a proportionate share of capital and operating costs from industrial users. Tomato processors generate a highly seasonal, large-volume, biogradable waste load, characterized by substantial variations in volume and composition among processing plants and throughout the processing season. Municipal treatment, spray irrigation, and evaporation-percolation ponds are the preferred means of pollution abatement. Water pollution control regulations are expected to speed the decline of the tomato processing industry in the East and Midwest as many small plants close. In California the number of large-volume plants may increase slightly. Prices of processed tomato products are expected to rise 1.0 to 4.2 percent per year due to pollution control costs. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics Length: 94 Number: 307580 Creation-Date: 1976-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307580 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307580/files/aer334.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307580 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vosloh, Carl J., Jr. Title: Feed Manufacturing Costs and Capital Requirements Abstract: Costs were synthesized for 99 model feed plants producing between 6 and 50 tons per hour of size of operation and specialization on feed manufacturing costs. These costs were analyzed to show the effect on costs of such factors as: pelleting, packaging, warehousing and utilization of plants' capacity. Plant investment ranged from $368,440 for a 6-ton per hour plant to $1,839,380 for a 50-ton plant, with equipment counting for 35 to 55 percent of the total. Operating costs ranged from $15.16 to $4.80 per ton. Lowest costs were in plants which neither pelleted nor packaged feed. Fixed costs per ton were reduced between 12 and 20 percent for 16 hours of operation rather than 8 hours. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 91 Number: 307581 Creation-Date: 1976-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307581 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307581/files/aer335.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307581 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Carlin, Thomas A. Title: Impact of the Earned Income Tax Credit: A Simulation of Tax Year 1976 Abstract: According to this simulation analysis of the 1976 tax year, families residing in the South would receive over 43 percent of benefits from the earned income tax credit, a refundable tax credit enacted into law as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975. It was assumed in the simulation that the tax credit would be in effect throughout the 1976 tax year. About 34 percent would go to families in rural areas and almost 7 percent to farm families. About 18 percent of the benefits would accrue to families with incomes under $4,000, 56 percent to families with incomes between $4,000 and $8,000, and the rest to families with incomes over $8,000. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 15 Number: 307582 Creation-Date: 1976-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307582 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307582/files/aer336.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307582 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Author-Name: Zehner, Mary D. Author-Name: Johnson, Stanley S. Author-Name: Petrucci, Vincent E. Title: Production Costs and Consumer Acceptance of Dried-on-the-Vine Raisins Abstract: It would have been costlier in 1974 to produce California raisins by the experimental dried-on-the-vine (DOV) method than by the predominant natural method, but somewhat cheaper for the experimental continuous tray method. Future increases in labor costs or decreases in costs of required chemicals, however, could bring DOV production into a competitive range. If so, adoption would be gradual, because growers would have to accept new concepts of grape culture, and some would have to make substantial investments. But slow adoption would ease transition for workers displaced during the 30 day grape harvesting season. Panelists on a Michigan consumer survey in 1974 generally liked and accepted DOV raisins. Response from several exporters, foreign buyers, and food processors was inconclusive. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 30 Number: 307583 Creation-Date: 1976-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307583 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307583/files/aer337.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307583 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krenz, Ronald Author-Name: Garst, Gail Author-Name: Micheel, Charles Author-Name: Fawcett, David Author-Name: Rogers, Stanley Title: Costs of Producing Food Grains, Feed Grains, Oilseeds, and Cotton, 1974-76 Abstract: This report presents regional and national estimates of variable, machinery ownership, and general farm overhead costs per acre and per unit for crop years 1974, 1975, and projections for 1976. Estimates of the land and management cost components are not included. Cost estimates are included for food grains, feed grains, oilseeds, and cotton crops. Production costs were higher in 1974 than in previous years because of rapidly rising input prices and generally poor yields for most crops in most regions. In 1975 production costs per acre showed a continued but slowed increase varying from 6 percent for flaxseed to 25 percent for com. However, yields increased from 3 to 26 percent and thereby held per unit costs near the 1974 levels. In fact, cost estimates per bushel for barley, soybeans, and flaxseed actually declined in 1975. Cotton costs were the exception, increasing by almost 24 percent in 1975. Given projected yield levels, unit costs in 1976 would be only slightly higher than in 1975. Projected favorable yields and falling input prices, especially for fertilizer, are responsible for the smaller rate of increase indicated. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 46 Number: 307584 Creation-Date: 1976-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307584 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307584/files/aer338.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307584 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Williams, Dorwin Title: Farm Expenditures and Their Financing in 1970 Abstract: Sample survey estimates from the 1970 Survey of Agricultural Finance, Bureau of the Census show that farm operators accounted for approximately 92 percent of total farm operating expenses and 94 percent of total capital purchases; landlords and contractors accounted for the remainder. Data from the 1970 survey were not available until 1974. Operating expenses accounted for about three-fourths of the operators’ total farm expenditures, of which three-fourths were financed with personal funds and the remainder was financed with borrowed funds. Capital purchases accounted for the remaining one-fourth of the total farm expenditures, of which about half were financed with personal funds and half with borrowed funds. Overall, operators paid for about two-thirds of their total farm expenditures with personal funds and financed the remainder with credit. Wide differences appeared among different subgroups of farm operators regarding amounts spent on operating expenses and capital purchases and their financing. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Production Economics Length: 35 Number: 307585 Creation-Date: 1976-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307585 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307585/files/aer340.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307585 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sharples, Jerry A. Author-Name: Walker, Rodney L. Author-Name: Slaughter, Rudie W., Jr. Title: Managing Buffer Stocks to Stabilize Wheat Prices Abstract: A wheat buffer stock simulation model is used to add random deviations of wheat yields and exports to projected supply and demand conditions for 1976-82. The result is a useful analytical tool for policy analysis—especially for the analysis of questions about price and income stability where deviations of production and use from the mean, rather than the value of the mean, are of primary interest. A simple buffer stock management rule is examined. Wheat buffer stocks would be purchased by a U.S. stocks management agency whenever the market price dropped below a specified purchase price, and stocks would be sold whenever the market price exceeded a specified sale price. The impact of alternative stock levels and alternative purchase and sale prices on the level and variation of supply, domestic and foreign sales. Government costs, and farm income are examined. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 16 Number: 307586 Creation-Date: 1976-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307586 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307586/files/aer341.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307586 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Boles, Patrick P. Title: Operations of For-Hire Livestock Trucking Firms Abstract: Various aspects of livestock truckers’ operations were examined. Factors studied were firm stability, vehicle use, seasonality of livestock shipments, loss and damage claims, rates charged, the backhaul situation, nonlivestock trucking activity and the effects of the fuel shortage situation on for-hire livestock truckers. Firms appeared to be relatively stable. Equipment use was good, considering the level of seasonality. The rate of loss and damage claims was low. Rates charged increased considerably between 1972 and 1974. The fuel shortage situation reduced equipment use and increased costs. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 35 Number: 307587 Creation-Date: 1976-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307587 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307587/files/aer342.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307587 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Cost Components of Farm-Retail Price Spreads for Selected Foods Abstract: The farm-retail price spread accounts for over half of each dollar consumers pay for most food products in retail stores. The farm-retail spread measures the marketing charges for assembling, transporting, processing, and distributing food products. Cost of these functions and of various inputs, such as labor and packaging, varied widely in 1974 for 16 products studied. Costs of assembling products from farmers averaged only 2 to 3 percent of the retail price of most products. Processing costs were about a third of the retail price of canned tomatoes, margarine and bread, but less than 15 percent of the price of beef, pork, broilers, eggs, and milk which are changed relatively little after they leave the farm. Estimated labor and packaging costs accounted for half or more of the processing costs for most products. Food transportation costs were highest for fresh fruits and vegetables, accounting for 10 to 15 percent of the retail price of potatoes and California lettuce and oranges. Costs of wholesaling, consisting of warehousing and local delivery, ranged between 5 and 8 percent of the retail price. Retailing margins were less than 25 percent of the retail price for all items except fresh oranges, potatoes, and lettuce. Labor costs made up about half of the store margin, while rent averaged around 7 percent. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 72 Number: 307588 Creation-Date: 1976-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307588 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307588/files/aer343.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307588 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Linstrom, Harold R. Author-Name: Seigle, N. Title: Convenience Foods for the Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Market: The Processor's View Abstract: Foodservice operators are switching to convenience food products to offset rising labor costs, increasing raw commodity prices, and a lack of trained personnel, and to realize economies from new food technology. A total of 138 surveyed firms reported over $1 billion in convenience food sales to the hotel, restaurant, and institutional (HRI) market during 1973/74. Over two-thirds of the companies had national sales distribution, nearly one-fourth reported regional sales distribution, and only a few small companies limited their distribution to local areas. Frozen food products accounted for over two-thirds of the products introduced and over 60 percent of the products discontinued during 1968-73. Heat-and-serve and portion control items were seen as the largest growth areas for convenience foods in the HRI market, but frozen foods are expected to gain the greatest sales over the next few years. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 22 Number: 307608 Creation-Date: 1976-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307608 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307608/files/aer344.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307608 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gee, C. Kerry Author-Name: Magleby, Richard S. Title: Characteristics of Sheep Production in the Western United States Abstract: About 80 percent of the sheep in the United States are raised in the western United States where extensive private and public ranges provide the bulk of the feed requirement. Only about 41 percent of the West's sheep producers have commercial scale operations of 50 head or more sheep, but they own nearly 93 percent of the region's sheep. About one-third of these commercial producers have specialized in sheep while two-thirds have diversified livestock operations. More than two-thirds operate as sole proprietors, while the rest have formed partnerships and family corporations. Many have substantial equity positions, which indicate past profitability. About one-fifth will likely be retiring in the next 10 years, which could result in many operations going out of sheep production. About half of the feed requirement for commercial sheep comes from private range, while public range supplies about one-fifth. Over half of the commercial sheep are grazed under the care of herders, usually on open (unfenced) range. Most lambing occurs in late winter and early spring. More commercial producers practice shed-lambing than range-lambing, but the number of sheep involved is less. The principal marketing problem is the few numbers of buyers bidding on lambs. Keywords: Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 52 Number: 307611 Creation-Date: 1976-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307611 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307611/files/aer345.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307611 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vosloh, Carl J., Jr. Author-Name: Edwards, Richard H. Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Author-Name: Kuzmicky, Donald D. Author-Name: Kohler, George O. Title: Leaf Protein Concentrate (Pro-Xan) from Alfalfa: An Economic Evaluation Abstract: Extraction of leaf protein concentrate (Pro-Xan) from alfalfa for use in various livestock feeds provides new investment opportunities under a wide variety of conditions. This report evaluates four systems for making this extraction and the effect of four variables on the annual rate of return on investment. The four systems differ in the method of expressing juice from the fresh alfalfa and the yield of Pro-Xan. The system in which the fresh alfalfa is ground prior to pressing, and which has a Pro-Xan yield of 12 percent, had the highest rate of return on investment. The four variables evaluated were the method of utilizing the press cake remaining after the Pro-Xan containing juice is expressed, the method of disposition of alfalfa solubles remaining after the Pro-Xan is recovered from the juice, the length of operating season, and the size of the processing plant. The most profitable method of solubles disposition is dependent upon the feasibility of disposing of them in a nearby irrigation system, the price that can be obtained for them when concentrated for use as a feed ingredient, and the price of natural gas. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 58 Number: 307613 Creation-Date: 1976-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307613 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307613/files/aer346.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307613 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hottel, J. Bruce Author-Name: Reinsel, Robert D Title: Returns to Equity Capital by Economic Class of Farm Abstract: Estimates of returns to equity capital invested in U.S. farm production are developed by using 1970 census benchmark data, which are the latest data available on farm finance. The rate of returns ranged from negative on farms with less than $10,000 gross farm sales to near 7 percent on the largest economic class farms. Only one-third of the farms had gross sales over $10,000, but accounted for 71 percent of all assets and earned returns above the composite average of 2.1 percent. This illustrates the problem inherent in using a composite average for "all farms" to represent the entire industry. The importance of off-farm income and additional returns to equity due to land appreciation probably explains why smaller farm units can exist on low farm returns. The difference in returns may help explain the increase in farm size, particularly for commercial units. Demands for loan funds will also substantially increase with the upward mobility in size classes and the tendency for larger farms to incur more debts. Higher capital requirements on larger units could also bring more equity financing in agriculture. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Financial Economics Length: 70 Number: 307617 Creation-Date: 1976-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307617 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307617/files/aer347.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307617 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Simmons, Richard L. Author-Name: Pearson, James L. Author-Name: Smith, Ernest B. Title: Mexican Competition for the U.S. Fresh Winter Vegetable Market Abstract: Mexican producers sharply expanded exports of fresh winter tomatoes, bell peppers, cucumbers, eggplants, and strawberries to U.S. markets during 1968-73. Comparatively low labor costs and climatic advantages stimulated this expansion. A hard freeze in Florida during the 1969/70 season added further stimulus to Mexico's expansion. But data for the 1974/75 season indicate a possible reversal of this trend, because Mexican exports were significantly reduced and Florida's shipments substantially increased. Factors affecting this possible trend reversal are sharply higher farm labor costs in Mexico and a growing awareness on the part of growers of the need for supply control to prevent market surpluses. Florida producers seem likely to retain or improve their share of the market because of improved cultural practices, substantial tariff protection, and closer proximity with eastern U.S. markets. Their Mexican competitors face the prospect of still higher farm wage costs. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 48 Number: 307619 Creation-Date: 1976-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307619 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307619/files/aer348.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307619 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E., Jr. Author-Name: Perrin, John Title: Economic Effects of Federal Contributions to the U.S. School Lunch Program: Calendar Year 1972 and Fiscal Year 1974 Abstract: The U.S. Department of Commerce 1967 input-output model was adjusted and used to determine the economic impact of the schools' expenditure of the Federal cash contribution, and of the Federal commodity contributions to the schools. Economic impact was measured in terms of changes in business receipts, gross national product, and jobs, for calendar year 1972 and for fiscal year 1974. In each example, the amount required to fund the cash contribution, or the purchase of the commodities contributed was obtained by increasing the Federal personal income taxes of taxpayers and reducing their expenditures by an equivalent amount prior to the transfer of the contribution to the schools. For this reason, the results obtained represent NET impact. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital, Public Economics Length: 25 Number: 307622 Creation-Date: 1976-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307622 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307622/files/aer350.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307622 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jesse, Edward V. Author-Name: Zepp, Glenn A. Title: Sugar Policy Options for the United States Abstract: This report examines the probable impact of alternative U.S. sugar policy positions on U.S. sweetener producers, processors, and consumers. Policy options considered include U.S. free trade, participation in an international sugar agreement, supply management through import quotas, and direct compensatory payments. World sugar prices to 1980 are projected for the free trade option. Consumer and U.S. Treasury costs are compared for protectionist options. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Production Economics Length: 53 Number: 307625 Creation-Date: 1977-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307625 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307625/files/aer351.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307625 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Banks, Vera Title: Farm Population Estimates for 1975 Abstract: The number of persons living on U.S. farms averaged 8,864,000 in the 12-month period centered on April 1975. In continuation of a long-time downward trend, the 1975 farm population was 850,000-or 8.7 percent-less than in 1970. For the 1970-75 period, the average net loss to the farm population through migration or reclassification of residence from farm to nonfarm was about 200,000 annually. The average rate of this net loss was 2.1 percent a year. Both the number of net outmovers and the rate of outmovement for 1970-75 were substantially less than in other recent periods. The South, with a 16-percent decline since 1970, continued its heavy loss of farm population. The farm population in the West is estimated to have increased 5 percent since 1970; it declined in other regions. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 8 Number: 307630 Creation-Date: 1976-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307630 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307630/files/aer352.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307630 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lewis, James A. Title: White and Minority Small Farm Operators in the South Abstract: Small farm operators constituted half of all southern farm operators in 1969. Each sold less than $2,500 worth of agricultural products; collectively, they contributed about 4 percent of the South's total agricultural sales. Yet, small farmers controlled an important portion on the South's agricultural resources. They operated over 15 percent of all the South’s land in farms and owned more than 20 percent of land owned by farm operators. They owned land and buildings valued at over $12.3 billion or 18.4 percent of total farm property value for the South. They held about 19 percent of the value of all machinery and equipment and supplied over 20 percent of all land rented to others by farm operators. Minority farm operators were almost 8 percent of all farm operators in the South. These farm operators were unique in that they differed from their white counterparts in most measures identified in this report. This report identifies, compares, and contrasts resources and characteristics of small farm operators in the 13 southern States. Small farmers are described by race and economic class. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 43 Number: 307634 Creation-Date: 1976-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307634 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307634/files/aer353.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307634 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rogers, George B. Author-Name: Benson, Verel W. Author-Name: Van Dyne, Donald L. Title: Energy Use and Conservation in the Poultry and Egg Industry Abstract: Estimates of energy use in the poultry and egg industry are discussed by commodity, type of fuel, season, and function. In 1974, the 146.5 trillion Btu’s used in poultry production and marketing cost producers almost $550 million. Although the efficiency of energy use in this industry has increased in the last decade, energy conservation measures discussed in this report can yield further substantial savings. Development and implementation of new technologies may reduce the use of critical forms of energy in the future. This study is intended to provide a basis for further energy research in the poultry and egg industry and to serve as a prototype for similar energy studies on other agricultural industries. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 56 Number: 307636 Creation-Date: 1976-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307636 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307636/files/aer354.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307636 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, Stanley S. Author-Name: Zahara, Mike Title: Mechanical Harvesting and Packing of Iceberg Lettuce Abstract: This report describes the operations and costs of existing and alternative mechanized lettuce harvesting systems. For mechanization, the immediate prospect is to substitute a harvest machine for the workers who select, cut, and trim the lettuce. Mechanizing the packing and wrapping operations is also possible. Analysis of the cost data indicates that the existing hand-cut, pack-in-the-field system is efficient compared with previous hand-cut methods and is slightly higher in cost compared with machine-cut systems. A ranking of harvest costs places the hand-cut system highest, followed by machine systems involving packing either on the machine or at a shed. Output per worker was increased from nearly 15 to 20 cartons per man-hour by replacing hand selecting and cutting with packing on the machine. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 38 Number: 307637 Creation-Date: 1977-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307637 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307637/files/aer357.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307637 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dwoskin, Philip B. Title: Foreign and Domestic Prospects for the U.S. Fast Food Franchise Industry Abstract: The U.S. fast food franchise industry, the fastest growing segment of the away-from-home eating market, was more adversely impacted by the 1974-75 recessionary period than other eating place segments. Sales volume decreased and growth rates, foreign and domestic, were considerably lower than those of 1969-73. Possible causal factors were the worldwide recession, the capital intensive nature of the industry, and market saturation. Nevertheless, this updated study finds that U.S. fast food franchise firms having foreign affiliates expect to generate $1.7 billion in foreign food and equipment sales by 1980, compared with $875 million in 1975. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade Length: 19 Number: 307638 Creation-Date: 1976-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307638 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307638/files/aer358.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307638 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shaw, Dale L. Author-Name: Ghetti, Joseph L. Title: Cotton: Comparisons of Modified Flat and Universal Density Presses Abstract: Capital requirements and operating costs were developed and analyzed using economic-engineering techniques to develop average cost and breakeven volumes for modified flat and universal density bale presses. Specifications and costs were developed for two sizes of presses in both modified flat and gin universal densities. Variable costs were developed for 30 different combinations of hourly processing rates and total hours of seasonal operation for each press type. Relative baling cost and revenue received for universal density compression were considered. The breakeven point between universal density and new modified flat bale press operations ranged from 3,850 bales at 12-bales-per-hour plants to 5,117 bales at 24-bales-per-hour plants. When an older, operational flat bale press was replaced by a new universal press, breakeven volumes were about 45 percent higher for the 8- and 12-bale-per-hour plants. They were 41 percent higher for 16-, 20-, and 24-bale-per-hour plants. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 51 Number: 307639 Creation-Date: 1977-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307639 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307639/files/aer359.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307639 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jones, Judith Lea Author-Name: Weimer, Jon P. Title: Food Safety: Homemakers' Attitudes and Practices Abstract: Homemakers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding food safety topics were explored in a nationwide survey conducted in 1974 by the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The study focuses on homemakers’ food safety practices, knowledge of-bacterial food contamination, their understanding of the functions of Government meat and poultry inspection, their attitudes toward selected food additives, and their preference for the ways in which food safety information can be disseminated. Areas of emphasis to be incorporated into food safety education programs and deterrents to consumer acceptance of these programs are also discussed. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 164 Number: 307640 Creation-Date: 1977-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307640 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307640/files/aer360.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307640 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Spurlock, Hughes H. Title: Home Mortgage Credit Terms: A Comparison of Two Selected Areas in Metro and Rural Kentucky, 1975 Abstract: Analysis of lending practices of credit institutions in a metro and a rural area in Kentucky in 1975 shows that much of the differences in credit terms for housing is associated with location of the borrowers. Rural borrowers depend heavily on local banks; savings and loan associations are major housing lenders in the metro area. In general, terms on housing loans offered by banks are more stringent than those offered by savings and loan associations. Few housing loans were being made across county lines. Home buyers in the rural area had fewer years to repay the loans and were required to make larger downpayments. Insufficient downpayment was the leading reason given for rejecting loans. Keywords: Financial Economics, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 26 Number: 307641 Creation-Date: 1977-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307641 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307641/files/aer362.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307641 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bohall, Robert Author-Name: Angelo, Luigi Author-Name: Gray, Fred Author-Name: Hulse, Fred Author-Name: Larkin, Lawrence Author-Name: Powe, Charles Title: The Sugar Industry's Structure, Pricing, and Performance Abstract: The structure, pricing, and performance of the U.S. sugar industry were studied with special emphasis on the industry's performance during the recent years of economic stress. The major causes of high U.S. sugar prices in 1974 were tight world sugar supplies and high world sugar prices. In 1974, as in most years, the United States imported about half its sugar. Above the supportive limits of the U.S. Sugar Act, world and U.S. price changes were closely correlated either when rising or declining. So, supply changes in the world sugar market had a major impact on the U.S. sugar industry and on U.S. consumers. In addition to outlining some of the major causes for high sugar prices in 1974, the study focused on the structure of the sugar industry, price movements, price analysis, performance of the industry, and outlook for the future. The beet processing and cane refining industry was found to be one of the more concentrated U.S. industries. And although concentration provides economies of size and improved industry performance, firms could maximize their returns by differentiating between markets, which would be consistent with discriminatory pricing practices. The basing point system of sugar pricing was also discussed--certain firms tended to be price leaders and others followers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade, Production Economics Length: 123 Number: 307642 Creation-Date: 1977-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307642 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307642/files/aer364.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307642 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jones, W. Webster Title: Economics of Butter Production and Marketing Abstract: Changes in factors affecting the economic performance of the butter industry are discussed. Emphasis is placed on trends in butter production, plant numbers, production per plant, regional shifts in production, per capita consumption, and sources of butterfat. Comparison is made of costs of butter manufacture using batch and continuous-churn systems. Breakdowns are made of costs by function and cost element. Farm-to-retail price spreads are analyzed along with factors which determine farm value and retail price. Results of a study of costs and margins of butter sold in nine selected cities are discussed. Also, a brief description is given of the marketing channels for butter. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 39 Number: 307643 Creation-Date: 1977-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307643 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307643/files/aer365.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307643 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Title: Evaluation of Pesticide Supplies and Demand for 1977 Abstract: Pesticide supplies for the 1977 crop season appear ample for all major uses. Production for 1977 is expected to be up about 10 percent. Supplies are up somewhat more, about 14 percent, because of larger inventories held by manufacturers and distributors than last year. Manufacturers and distributors reported that prices to dealers were up 6 percent or less and prices to growers were expected to be up 10 percent or less, with lower prices for some products in abundant supply. Demand is expected to be less than supply, leaving a net surplus of 5 to 10 percent. Supply estimates are based on surveys of pesticide manufacturers and distributors. Demand estimates are based on farmers' 1977 planting intentions and data on pesticide use patterns. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Productivity Analysis Length: 20 Number: 307644 Creation-Date: 1977-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307644 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307644/files/aer366.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307644 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Marketing Spreads for Agricultural Products in 1976 Abstract: Larger food supplies and an easing of inflationary forces greatly slowed the rise in food prices in 1976. The retail cost of a market basket of farm foods averaged only 1 percent higher than in 1975. All of the increase was accounted for by an increase of 5 percent in the farm-retail price spread, representing the charges for processing and distribution. The 1976 increase in the marketing spread was the smallest in several years, due in part to a slower rise in the costs of some marketing inputs, such as food containers. Returns to farmers for food products declined about 4 percent in 1976, mainly due to lower livestock prices. Farmers received an average of 40 cents of each dollar spent by consumers for farm foods in 1976--2 cents less than in 1975. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 41 Number: 307645 Creation-Date: 1977-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307645 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307645/files/aer367.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307645 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Author-Name: Givan, William D. Author-Name: Shugars, Owen K. Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Title: Flue-Cured Tobacco Mechanization and Labor: Impacts of Alternative Production Levels Abstract: The flue-cured tobacco industry is in a state of transition as farmers are replacing the traditional harvest methods with modern bulk curing systems. The rapid trend toward harvest mechanization experienced in 1972-75 will continue into the eighties, according to an analysis of a wide range of quota levels and wage rates. Adopting new harvest technology is profitable for farmers, and it will have an impact on the demand for harvest labor. In the aggregate, however, harvest mechanization will not cause serious unemployment problems in the flue-cured tobacco belt. During 1972-80, with increased wage rates, the decline in the number of harvest workers is projected to range from 64,000 workers, under a "high" level of production, to 199,000, under a "low" level of production. Harvest jobs are part-time and seasonal. Workers most likely to lose harvest job opportunities are young persons and women. Of tasks eliminated with bulk curing systems, more than 90 percent in 1972 were performed by young persons (mainly 12 to 15 years of age) and by women. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 30 Number: 307646 Creation-Date: 1977-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307646 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307646/files/aer368.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307646 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gee, C. Kerry Author-Name: Magleby, Richard S. Author-Name: Bailey, Warren R. Author-Name: Gum, Russell L. Author-Name: Arthur, Louise M. Title: Sheep and Lamb Losses to Predators and Other Causes in the Western United States Abstract: Predators, principally coyotes, were the major cause of lamb and sheep losses in the western United States in 1974, according to surveyed farmers and ranchers. Rates of loss to coyotes varied considerably among individual farmers and ranchers; while many had no or minor predation problems, others reported very high losses. Overall in the western United States, losses attributed to coyotes in 1974 numbered 728,000 lambs (more than 8 percent of all lambs born) and 229,000 adult sheep (more than 2 percent of inventory), representing a third of the total lamb deaths to all causes and a fourth of the adult sheep deaths. These losses cost U.S. sheep producers some $27 million in lost returns in 1974, while consumers lost some $10 million in benefits because of higher prices for lamb and reduced quantities available. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 46 Number: 307647 Creation-Date: 1977-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307647 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307647/files/aer369.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307647 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zepp, G. A. Title: Cane Sugar Supply Response in the United States Abstract: The major supply response in the domestic cane sugar industry would occur at raw sugar prices between $9.00 and $16.00 per hundredweight. At prices below $9.00, not very much cane sugar production is profitable in the long run. At prices above $16.00, most of the sugarcane production that is technically feasible is profitable. Present production of about 3 million tons of raw sugar could be maintained in the long run at a raw sugar price of approximately $14.00 per hundredweight. Regional production patterns, however, would change at this price. Florida and Texas production would increase, while Hawaiian production would probably decrease. Louisiana production would remain about the same. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Production Economics Length: 39 Number: 307648 Creation-Date: 1977-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307648 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307648/files/aer370.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307648 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jesse, Edward V. Author-Name: Zepp, Glenn A. Title: Beet Sugar Supply Response in the United States Abstract: Projections of U.S. sugarbeet acreage are made under alternative prices for raw sugar and for major crops that compete with beets by using an econometric model of the sugarbeet production sector. Raw sugar prices (New York spot) of about 16 to 22 cents per pound will probably be needed to maintain the 1976 sugarbeet acreage in 1980. Significant regional shifts in the location of production are likely, regardless of future sugar prices. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Production Economics Length: 48 Number: 307658 Creation-Date: 1977-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307658 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307658/files/aer371.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307658 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harrison, Virden L. Title: Optimizing Marketing Dates for Steers by Accounting for Individual Differences Abstract: Steers differ greatly in their growth patterns, feed use, and carcass grading characteristics. Feedlot operations can increase their net returns by altering feed rations and slaughter dates according to individual steer differences. Experimental data giving biological relationships for two types of steers fed nine alternative rations were combined with a computer simulation to optimize slaughter dates and to estimate the effects of breed type, feed ration, pricing system, and price-cost ratios on profitability and length of feeding period. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 31 Number: 307659 Creation-Date: 1977-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307659 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307659/files/aer372.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307659 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bird, Ronald Author-Name: Kampe, Ronald Title: 25 Years of Housing Progress in Rural America Abstract: U.S. housing conditions improved markedly from 1950 to 1975, especially in nonmetropolitan areas: nonmetro homeownership increased from 60 to 72 percent; the proportion occupying substandard units declined from 59 to 8 percent; crowded conditions declined from 19 to 6 percent; the percentage occupying centrally heated homes rose from 23 to 58 percent; and those living in single family homes valued at more than $12,000 (constant dollars) rose from 13 to 29 percent, while those living in homes valued at less than $4,000 declined from 36 to 15 percent. Several factors played an important role in this improvement; the rise in household incomes, construction of new housing far exceeding net household formations, and activity of Federal, State, and local governments. Despite improvements, 1.9 million households occupied nonmetro substandard units in 1975. The poor, the blacks, and the aged still occupy a large proportion of the poor housing. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 31 Number: 307660 Creation-Date: 1977-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307660 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307660/files/aer373.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307660 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Carlin, Thomas A. Author-Name: Hendricks, Gary Author-Name: Christian, Faye F. Title: Residential and Regional Distribution of Benefits Under the Allowance for Basic Living Expenses (ABLE) Welfare Reform Proposal Abstract: A broad-based welfare reform program, proposed in 1974 by the Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress, is compared to the current Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and Food Stamp programs. The proposal is termed ABLE (Allowance for Basic Living Expenses). The study finds that the primary impact of ABLE would be to increase substantially the number of welfare-eligible families without changing the distribution of eligible families among regions or urban and rural areas. However, there would be a substantial reduction in benefits to eligible families in the Northeast and to a lesser extent in the North Central region and the West. Eligible southern families would gain substantially. Metropolitan areas would lose benefits under ABLE, but rural areas, except in the Northeast, would gain. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Food Security and Poverty, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 54 Number: 307661 Creation-Date: 1977-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307661 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307661/files/aer374.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307661 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edwards, Clark Title: Strategies for Balanced Growth in Developing Countries Keywords: International Development Length: 34 Number: 307662 Creation-Date: 1977-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307662 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307662/files/aer375.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307662 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sloggett, Gordon Title: Energy and U.S. Agriculture: Irrigation Pumping, 1974 Abstract: In 1974, U.S. farmers irrigated over 35 million acres with water pumped from wells and from rivers and lakes. About 260 trillion Btus of energy costing $594 million were required to pump the water. Electricity was used to pump water on 15.6 million acres followed by natural gas, 10.6 million; diesel, 3.9 million; LPG, 3.3 million; and gasoline, 1.5 million acres Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 45 Number: 307663 Creation-Date: 1977-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307663 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307663/files/aer376.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307663 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gaibler, Floyd D. Title: Water Carriers and Inland Waterways in Agricultural Transportation Abstract: Agricultural commerce on inland waterways has experienced rapid growth in recent years. Major inland movements of agricultural commodities are identified. Effects of pricing and seasonality peculiar to agricultural traffic are examined. Factors contributing to growth of agricultural shipments are analyzed. Finally, policy issues which could impact upon the future of agricultural transportation by waterway are discussed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Marketing, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 34 Number: 307664 Creation-Date: 1977-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307664 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307664/files/aer379.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307664 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ballinger, Roy A. Title: A History of Sugar Marketing Through 1974 Abstract: The quota system of regulating the production, importation, and marketing of sugar in the United States through 1974 was an outgrowth of Government regulation of the sugar trade dating from colonial times. Similar systems have developed in most other countries, particularly those which import sugar. The U.S. Sugar Quota System benefited domestic sugar producers by providing stable prices at favorable levels. These prices also encouraged the production and use of substitute sweeteners, particularly high fructose and glucose sirup and crystalline dextrose in various industries. But sugar is still the most widely used sweetener in the United States, although its dominant position is being increasingly threatened. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 102 Number: 307665 Creation-Date: 1978-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307665 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307665/files/aer382.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307665 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Banks, Vera J. Title: Farm Population Estimates for 1976 Abstract: An average of 8,253,000 persons lived on farms in rural areas of the United States in the 12-month period centered on April 1976. The North Central Region, with 3.8 million persons living on farms, is the most populous; the South, with 2.9 million farm residents, ranks second. The 1976 estimate of U.S. farm population was almost 1.5 million (or 15 percent) lower than in 1970. For the 1970-76 period, the average net loss of farm population through migration or reclassification of residence from farm to nonfarm was about 270,000 annually. The average rate of this net outflow was 2.9 percent. The United States and all geographic regions and divisions had a significant decline in both the volume and rate of farm outmovement during 1970-76 as compared to earlier years. Of the four major U.S. geographic regions, only the West registered a farm population increase since 1970. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development Length: 12 Number: 307666 Creation-Date: 1977-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307666 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307666/files/aer383.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307666 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuehn, John A. Author-Name: Braschler, Curtis Title: New Manufacturing Plants in the Nonmetro Ozarks Region Abstract: From 1967 to 1974, more manufacturing plants of all sizes located in nonmetro communities than in metro areas in the five Ozarks States. Most of the new nonmetro plants were located in towns of less than 25,000 population not near metro core cities. New manufacturing plants with 10 or more employees were widely dispersed among nonmetro towns; 497 towns acquired new plants. Over 60 percent of all nonmetro towns of 2,500 or more population acquired new plants employing 10 or more workers; 241 towns of less than 2,500 population acquired such plants. Dispersed nonmetro location was greater during the latter part of the study period than the early part. New plants within the Ozarks nonmetro areas were very diversified, with 286 different industries represented. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 37 Number: 307667 Creation-Date: 1977-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307667 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307667/files/aer384.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307667 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, Stanley S. Title: Mechanical Harvesting of Wine Grapes Abstract: Mechanization of the California wine grape harvest has slowed, with no rapid increase expected for the immediate future. However, a lot depends on solving current problems of wine quality using mechanically harvested grapes and machine damage to vines as well as generally low grape prices and the labor situation. The study points out that mechanical harvesting is only economical on larger acreages. For example, at an 8-ton-per-acre yield in 1972, a farm would have to be 220 acres in size in order for mechanical harvesting costs to break even with those of hand harvesting. On the other hand, if farmworker wages went up by a fourth or more over other costs, machine harvesting could increase the competitive edge. In general, owners of mechanical harvesters viewed their machines favorably, most often noting that they liked the increased control over their operations and the relative freedom from labor problems. Operational problems cited were vine and stake damage and juicing of the grapes. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 32 Number: 307668 Creation-Date: 1977-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307668 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307668/files/aer385.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307668 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heifner, Richard G. Author-Name: Driscoll, James L. Author-Name: Helmuth, John W. Author-Name: Leath, Mack N. Author-Name: Niernberger, Floyd F. Author-Name: Wright, Bruce H. Title: The U.S. Cash Grain Trade: Participants, Transactions, and Information Sources, 1974 Abstract: The commercial cash grain market in the United States is dispersed; most sales are made to buyers located away from the traditional terminals. The market primarily involves contracts for deferred delivery entered verbally by telephone and followed by written confirmation. The typical country elevator sells to only a few buyers. It relies upon telephone contact with them along with radio and teletype reports of futures prices, as sources of information for pricing decisions. Much of the basic information needed by traders is assembled in USDA's Grain Market News and distributed to users through commercial commodity news services. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 76 Number: 307669 Creation-Date: 1977-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307669 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307669/files/aer386.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307669 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lasley, Floyd A. Title: Geographic Structure of Milk Prices, 1975 Abstract: This report measures and analyzes the relationship between prices paid by dealers for milk for fluid use and the distance from Eau Claire, Wisconsin. The relationship between retail prices and distance from Eau Claire is also shown. In addition, a regression analysis indicates the relationship between retail prices and the prices paid by dealers. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 22 Number: 307670 Creation-Date: 1977-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307670 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307670/files/aer387.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307670 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mikesell, James J. Title: Population Change and Metro-Nonmetro Housing Quality Differences Abstract: This study investigates the degree to which population change and other characteristics of U.S. counties can be used to explain county-to-county and metro-nonmetro differences in housing quality. Stepwise multiple regression analysis is used. During the 1960's, the greatest drop in occupancy of homes lacking complete plumbing facilities was in nonmetro counties experiencing rapid population declines. However, measures of a county's housing quality--plumbing, crowding, value, rent, and tenure--were more closely tied to per capita income than to population change. County characteristics, including population change, were able to explain most of the metro-nonmetro differences in quality measures Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 29 Number: 307671 Creation-Date: 1977-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307671 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307671/files/aer388.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307671 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Paul, Duane A. Author-Name: Kilmer, Richard L. Title: The Manufacturing and Marketing of Nitrogen Fertilizers in the United States Abstract: Newer nitrogen fertilizer firms--those built since 1963--are larger, use less electricity, and can operate more efficiently than older, smaller firms. Regardless of age or size, all firms are affected by the availability of natural gas. Many newer firms use intrastate gas, for while it is more expensive than interstate gas, supplies are more certain. Due in part to gas curtailments, and also to seasonal demands, terminal storage capacities close to the areas of consumption are now in use. Trucks, barges, and particularly pipelines are becoming major alternatives to railcars for the shipment of products. Keywords: Agribusiness, Industrial Organization, Marketing, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 43 Number: 307672 Creation-Date: 1977-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307672 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307672/files/aer390.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307672 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Cost Components of Farm-Retail Price Spreads Abstract: The farm-retail price spread is the difference between the price paid for a food product by consumers and the payment that farmers receive for an equivalent quantity of farm product. It measures the costs of assembling, transporting, processing, and retailing food products. The cost of these functions and of various inputs, such as labor and packaging, varied widely in 1975 for 16 products studied. Costs of assembling products from farmers accounted for only 2 to 3 percent of the retail price of most products. Processing costs made up about a third of the retail price of canned tomatoes, margarine, and bread, but less than 15 percent of the price of beef, pork, broilers, eggs, and milk—products that are changed relatively little after they leave the farm. Labor and packaging costs accounted for half or more of the processing costs for most products. Food transportation costs were highest for fresh fruits and vegetables. Costs of wholesaling, consisting of warehousing and local delivery, ranged between 5 and 8 percent of the retail price of the items studied. Retailing costs accounted for less than 25 percent of the retail price for all items except fresh oranges, potatoes, and lettuce. Labor costs made up about half of the retailing costs, while rent accounted for around 7 percent. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 43 Number: 307673 Creation-Date: 1977-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307673 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307673/files/aer391.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307673 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stam, Jerome M. Author-Name: Sibold, Ann Gordon Title: Agriculture and the Property Tax: A Forward Look Based on a Historical Perspective Abstract: An evaluation in a historical setting is made of: ( 1) the importance of the property tax to the agricultural sector, (2) the horizontal equity of the property tax for the agricultural sector in terms of both income and wealth, and (3) some of the internal changes in the agricultural sector which have a bearing on the property taxes paid by that sector. Horizontal equity of the farm property tax is investigated under various assumptions. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Financial Economics, Land Economics/Use, Public Economics Length: 72 Number: 307674 Creation-Date: 1977-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307674 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307674/files/aer392.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307674 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Issues in Milk Pricing and Marketing Abstract: This paper discusses the economic, technological, and institutional factors which shaped the development of the milk marketing and pricing system, the nature of classified pricing, the determinants of the geographic structure of milk prices, the issue of undue price enhancement by cooperatives, the changing functions of milk marketing cooperatives, and issues ahead in milk pricing. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 19 Number: 307675 Creation-Date: 1977-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307675 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307675/files/aer393.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307675 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stinson, Thomas F. Author-Name: Voelker, Stanley W. Title: Coal Development in the Northern Great Plains: The Impact on Revenues of State and Local Governments Abstract: Development of Northern Great Plains coal resources will create new demands for State and local government services. Development will also produce increased government revenues. Special taxes on coal production have been enacted in Montana, North Dakota, and Wyoming in order to insure that State and local governments receive sufficient revenues to finance the new services required. This study reports detailed estimates of the State and local taxes that would be paid by three different sized coal mines and their employees in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. The estimates were obtained by using the ENERGYTAX simulation model. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Public Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 71 Number: 307676 Creation-Date: 1978-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307676 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307676/files/aer394.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307676 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Title: The Performance and Economic Feasibility of Solar Grain Drying Systems Abstract: The performance and costs of eight experimental onfarm solar collectors designed to dry corn were studied. Solar drying costs were compared with costs of owning and operating conventional grain dryers. The costs of the lowest cost collectors were found to be as low as or lower than those for some conventional dryers. Depreciation and fuel costs were the major cost items contributing to this favorable comparison. Fixed costs for the eight solar collectors ranged from 6.6 to 26.6 cents/bu; variable costs ranged from 1.5 to 8.4 cents. Further research, mass production, and increasing energy costs should enhance the economic feasibility of solar grain drying. However, its dependability on sunshine and the uncertainty of solar performance in times of inclement weather are factors which may limit its use to a "solar grain drying belt." Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 37 Number: 307677 Creation-Date: 1978-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307677 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307677/files/aer396.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307677 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shaw, C. N. Author-Name: Levine, S. G. Title: Government's Role in Pricing Fluid Milk in the United States Abstract: The Federal marketing order system regulated 80 percent of the Nation's fluid-grade milk marketings in 1976. This compares with just over 50 percent in 1956. During 1976, 122,770 producers delivered 74.6 billion pounds of milk to Federal order handlers—about 65 percent of all milk sold to plants and dealers. The farm value of this milk was $7.4 billion. Thirty-seven States administer milk distribution in one or more of the following ways: establishing minimum prices at the farm, wholesale, or retail level; regulating trade practices; and permitting milk promotional programs, financed through producer or handlers assessment or appropriation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 45 Number: 307678 Creation-Date: 1978-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307678 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307678/files/aer397.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307678 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Title: Evaluation of Pesticide Supplies and Demand for 1978 Abstract: Pesticide supplies for the 1978 crop season appear ample for all major uses. Production is expected to be up about 3 percent, but inventories are off about 1 percentage point. Net supplies are expected to be up about 2 percent overall. Insecticide supplies are up about 5 percent, but herbicide supplies are expected to be off about 2 percent. Pesticide prices dropped 5 to 9 percent last year. Although adequate supplies of pesticides are exerting continued downward pressure on prices, prices are generally expected to hold at last year's levels. World pesticide use is expected to increase nearly 50 percent from 1974 levels to those projected for 1984, with proportional increases for the developing nations far exceeding those for the developed nations. Supply estimates for this report are based on surveys of pesticide manufacturers and distributors. Demand estimates are based on farmers' planting intentions for 1978 and on data on pesticide use. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 27 Number: 307679 Creation-Date: 1978-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307679 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307679/files/aer399.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307679 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Myers, Paul R. Author-Name: Hines, Fred K. Author-Name: Conopask, Jeff V. Title: A Socioeconomic Profile of the Northern Great Plains Coal Region Abstract: Excerpt from the Purpose of the Study: This study provides a socioeconomic profile of selected coal areas of the Northern Great Plains. Potential problems that may arise from coal development are identified and measured. The report covers such items as historical and recent trends in population, income, and employment for the region as a whole, and for selected areas and towns within the region. Data for the region are compared with data for the entire United States and all U.S. nonmetro counties. The report makes wide use of data from the Census of Population. The Federal State Cooperative series of county population estimates are used to measure 1970-74 population change and components of change. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 53 Number: 307680 Creation-Date: 1978 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307680 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307680/files/aer400.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307680 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fallert, Richard F. Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Title: Alternative Pricing Policies for Class 1 Milk under Federal Marketing Orders--Their Economic Impact Abstract: Four alternative Class I price structures are examined for the U.S. dairy industry: (1) continuing current programs and policy, (2) increasing Class I differentials 45 cents in all regions, (3) decreasing Class I differentials 75 cents in all regions, and (4) eliminating minimum Class I differentials. The estimated impact of these policies is shown on the Minnesota-Wisconsin (M-W) price (the basic determinant of all prices) regional and aggregate farm prices and income; milk production; fluid milk and manufactured dairy product prices; and industry structure. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 71 Number: 307681 Creation-Date: 1978-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307681 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307681/files/aer401.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307681 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Dairy Price Policy: Setting, Problems, Alternatives Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 74 Number: 307682 Creation-Date: 1978-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307682 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307682/files/aer402.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307682 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kasal, James Title: Effects of Small Watershed Development on Land Values Abstract: Small watershed flood control development (Public Law 566) has had varying impacts on structure site land values. Economics, location, climate, and land use differences were found to be important factors in assessing land value changes. Oklahoma and Nebraska data indicate that onsite land value changes due to the program range from a negative 37.75 percent to a positive 24.2 percent, depending on estimating and deflating procedures. Data also indicate that easement expenditures for flood control structure sites usually exceed the 25 to 38 percent compensation necessary to leave landowners in the same financial position before and after the transfer of land rights. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 40 Number: 307683 Creation-Date: 1978-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307683 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307683/files/aer404.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307683 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lee, Linda K. Title: A Perspective on Cropland Availability Abstract: Despite current crop surpluses, the concern that there may be too little agricultural land to meet future agricultural demands remains. This concern stems from declines in the cropland base due to urbanization and highway and reservoir construction, in addition to anticipated declines in productivity from energy and environmental constraints. This study analyzes the amount, location, and quality of land with cropland potential by region. Declines in the cropland base through irreversible land use changes as well as the issue of prime farmland are investigated. In addition, future research needs are outlined. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 26 Number: 307684 Creation-Date: 1978-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307684 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307684/files/aer406.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307684 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Van Arsdall, R. Thomas Author-Name: Devlin, Patricia J. Title: Energy Policies: Price Impacts on the U.S. Food System Abstract: Forthcoming energy policies should complement the goal of abundant food supplies at affordable prices, wherever possible. Energy costs represent 8 percent of farm production costs and 12 percent of the consumer food bill. It appears that energy price increases resulting from either the continuation of existing energy policies or the implementation of a moderate energy program could cause farm production costs to increase 2-3 percent from 1975 to 1985 in real terms, with the consumer food bill rising 4-5 percent in real terms. Anticipated price increases appear less significant when compared with the potential havoc that a disruption in the availability of energy supplies could produce for the U.S. food system. Keywords: Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 49 Number: 307685 Creation-Date: 1978-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307685 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307685/files/aer407.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307685 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gum, Russell L. Author-Name: Arthur, Louise M. Author-Name: Magleby, Richard S. Title: Coyote Control: A Simulation of Evaluation of Alternative Strategies Abstract: Current and alternative coyote control strategies in the Western United States are evaluated via a computerized simulation model which predicts the economic and socio-environmental impacts of each strategy. A gradual decrease in lamb losses and an increase in net economic benefits are predicted if the 1974 level of coyote control, $7 million, is increased to $20 million. Socio-environmental benefits did not change significantly under that simulation. Beyond the $20 million level of expenditures, net economic benefits are predicted to decline slightly and socio-environmental benefits decline rapidly. At expenditures below 1974 levels, both economic and socio-environmental benefits decline substantially. Changes in mixes of control methods are discovered which permit both economic and socio-environmental benefits to increase. These alternatives include increased use of the M-44 and aerial gunning and decreased use of traps. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 55 Number: 307686 Creation-Date: 1978-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307686 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307686/files/aer408.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307686 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gee, C. Kerry Title: Cattle and Calf Losses in Feeder Cattle Production Abstract: U.S. beef cattle and calf losses in feeder cattle production are estimated for 1975 from a USDA survey to indicate historical trends in cattle and calf losses. Major loss categories were disease, predators, theft, inclement weather, and unidentified causes. Of those feeder calves lost to production, 85 percent of the losses occurred before birth and 15 percent between birth and weaning based on January 1 inventories. Since 1950, annual average cattle losses have been 1.7 percent in comparison with calf losses of 6.4 percent. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 19 Number: 307687 Creation-Date: 1978-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307687 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307687/files/aer409.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307687 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E. Title: Food Stamp Redemptions: Their Impact on Food Sales by Region, Size, and Kind of Participating Food Stores, Fiscal 1976 Abstract: The amount of food sales, food stamp redemptions, and cash/check receipts for all retail food stores which participated in the Food Stamp Program in fiscal 1976 were analyzed according to region, kind, and size of store. Differences among the distributions were identified to ascertain the extent to which any region, kind, or size of store received a greater proportion of the total value of food stamps redeemed than it had of the total value of cash/checks received for the same fiscal year. Differences were tested to determine if they might be attributed to chance. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety Length: 47 Number: 307688 Creation-Date: 1978-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307688 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307688/files/aer410.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307688 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stucker, Thomas A. Author-Name: Boehm, William T. Title: A Guide to Understanding the 1977 Food and Agricultural Legislation Abstract: The Food and Agriculture Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-113) contains the authorization for the next 4 years for the farm commodity programs, federally supported agricultural and human nutrition research, and the Food Stamp Program. The National School Lunch and Child Nutrition Amendments of 1977 (P.L. 95-166) are also concerned with food use and consumption. The meaning and potential effects of the 1977 legislation are described. The principal focus is on consumer implications. The theoretical aspects of policy alternatives are briefly presented when useful in explaining policy goals of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977. Changes since enactment are not included, nor are their implications discussed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 26 Number: 307689 Creation-Date: 1978-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307689 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307689/files/aer411.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307689 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service Title: Proceedings of Workshop on Farm Sector Financial Accounts, April 14-15, 1977 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Preface: Authors of the major papers discussed the role of the existing farm sector financial accounts, the Balance Sheet of the Farming Sector and the Farm Income Statement, Cash Sources and Uses of Funds Statements, and some additional farm sector accounts which have been proposed in the literature and, in some cases, published by USDA. These new accounts include the Capital Finance and Capital Flows accounts and Personal Income and Outlay Statements. In the concluding paper, as well as the general discussion, author and discussants focused on how the entire system of farm sector financial accounts is interrelated and what new directions are needed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance Length: 153 Number: 307690 Creation-Date: 1978-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307690 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307690/files/aer412.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307690 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Holder, Shelby H. Jr. Author-Name: Smith, Alberta Title: An Analysis of U.S. Rice Distribution Patterns Abstract: A survey of U.S. rice distribution patterns between marketing years 1955/56 and 1974/75 indicates that brewers and breakfast cereal manufacturers became increasingly important outlets in the domestic market. Exports, however, overtook domestic use and increased their share of total disappearance from 43 to 66 percent. Although growth in the use of rice was erratic, it trended upward. Exports more than quadrupled, domestic direct food use increased about 55 to 60 percent, distribution for processed food use about doubled, and distribution to the beer industry doubled between 1960/61 and 1974/75. Domestic use except for beer, however, dropped from 1973/74 levels. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade Length: 52 Number: 307691 Creation-Date: 1978-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307691 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307691/files/aer413.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307691 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service Title: Economic Effects of a Prohibition on the Use of Selected Animal Drugs Abstract: An economic assessment is made of the impacts that might occur in the agricultural sector from the ban or restricted use of various drugs in animal feed. Attention is focused on feed efficiency, growth promotion, and mortality, and how changes in these variables affect production costs, output, and product prices. Effects on consumers and consumer response are also estimated. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Health Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 74 Number: 307692 Creation-Date: 1978-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307692 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307692/files/aer414.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307692 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Title: Structural Characteristics of the U.S. Hog Production Industry Abstract: Structural and operating characteristics of hog production in 1975 are identified. Data from a sample survey and secondary sources reveal number of hog producers and sizes of enterprises, location of production, forms of ownership, general farm characteristics, details of production practices, specifics of facilities in use, and methods of marketing. Information is given by region for the three major types of hog producing enterprises: feeder pig production, farrow-to^-finish, and feeder pig finishing. Keywords: Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 139 Number: 307693 Creation-Date: 1978-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307693 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307693/files/aer415.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307693 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Title: The Disappearance of the Grade B Milk Market: A Matter of Policy Choice? Abstract: The rapid conversion of U.S. dairy farmers from Grade B to Grade A milk production could eliminate Grade B milk for manufacturing as the basis for all U.S. milk prices. This paper suggests that classified pricing and pooling policies under Federal milk marketing orders are direct factors causing this conversion. A policy to lower Class I price differentials in Federal orders while increasing Grade B support prices could maintain a viable manufacturing milk market and thereby maintain the Minnesota-Wisconsin Grade B price as a viable basis for determining all Class I prices. This policy could be followed under existing orders, probably without creating disorderly marketing conditions. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 17 Number: 307694 Creation-Date: 1978-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307694 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307694/files/aer416.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307694 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Author-Name: Andrelinas, Paul A. Author-Name: Anderson, Thelma W. Title: Farmers' Use of Pesticides in 1976 Abstract: Pesticides have been responsible for much of the yield gains in modern farm production. Farmers used 661 million pounds of pesticides in 1976, up 38 percent from 1971. Crops accounted for 98 percent of farm pesticide use, and herbicides accounted for 60 percent of the crop use. Herbicides also accounted for most of the overall rise in pesticide use between 1971 and 1976, increasing 76 percent. A slowdown in the pesticide growth rate can be expected, however, because of concern over possible adverse effects and because of greater use of such alternatives as biological controls and integrated pest management. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 66 Number: 307695 Creation-Date: 1978-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307695 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307695/files/aer418.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307695 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edmondson, Thomas D. Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: State Regulation of Corporate Farming Abstract: As of December 1977, 10 States had enacted legislation restricting corporate farming (farm operations, vertical integration, and ownership of farmland). The statutes’ main intent was to protect the family farmer from competition by large agribusiness firms. Those statutes are described and their effectiveness analyzed. The available data on corporate farming operations, from the census of agriculture and the Internal Revenue Service, suggest that the State statutes may be premature; corporate farms with more than 10 shareholders account for only 5 percent of total U.S. agricultural sales. Thus, some States concerned with the encroachment of corporate farming are considering enactment of reporting laws to collect more specific information. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Farm Management Length: 49 Number: 307696 Creation-Date: 1978-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307696 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307696/files/aer419.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307696 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dunham, Denis Title: Developments in Marketing Spreads for Food Products in 1978 Abstract: Retail food prices were 10 percent higher in 1978 than in 1977. The largest increases were for red meat and fresh fruits and vegetables, up 19 and 14 percent, respectively. Higher farm values for food commodities, up 16 percent, accounted for half of the increase in grocery store food prices last year. The spread between farm and retail prices (representing charges made for processing and distributing foods after they leave the farm) was up 8.2 percent and accounted for 40 percent of the food-price increase. Higher prices for fish and imported foods accounted for 10 percent of the increase. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 55 Number: 307697 Creation-Date: 1979-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307697 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307697/files/aer420.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307697 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E. Title: Do Food Stamp and other Customers Buy the Same Products in Supermarkets? Abstract: Food purchases of food stamp and all other customers, including those eligible for but not participating in the Food Stamp Program, are compared. Both groups allocated greater proportions of their food purchases to meat, poultry, and fish than did USDA's Thrifty Food Plan. The food stamp and other groups allocated similar proportions of their food dollar among the various food product groups, although food stamp customers spent more per shopping trip for 22 of the 27 food products surveyed. Neither group bought foods giving them the greatest nutrition per dollar spent. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 22 Number: 307698 Creation-Date: 1979-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307698 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307698/files/aer421.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307698 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Author-Name: Andrilenas, Paul A. Title: Evaluation of Pesticide Supplies and Demand for 1979 Abstract: Pesticide supplies for the 1979 crop season appear adequate for all major uses. Production is expected to be up about 2 percent and inventories are up about 4 percent. Net supplies should be about 5 percent greater overall than last year. Because of increasing production and distribution costs, prices are expected to advance slightly over last year's levels, 2 to 3 percent. Pesticide demand estimates, up 5 to 6 percent over last year, are based primarily on farmers' planting intentions for 1979. Supply estimates are based on a survey of basic pesticide manufacturers and discussions with major distributors. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 23 Number: 307699 Creation-Date: 1979-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307699 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307699/files/aer422.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307699 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mullins, Troy Title: Rice Production in Nontraditional Areas Abstract: About 340,000 acres of land in the Florida Everglades, Louisiana river parishes, and Puerto Rico are well suited for rice production. If the areas were fully developed, approximately 200,000 acres could produce a crop annually, with 30,000 to 40,000 acres in Puerto Rico producing two crops. The acreage most likely to be developed would depend on farm prices. It ranges between 90,000 and 160,000 acres, with crops of 5 to 9 million hundredweight of rice. The impact of this production on supplies of and prices received for U.S. rice would be comparatively minor. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Land Economics/Use, Production Economics Length: 24 Number: 307700 Creation-Date: 1979-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307700 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307700/files/aer423.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307700 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gee, C. Kerry Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Author-Name: Gustafson, Ronald A. Title: U.S. Fed-Beef Production Costs, 1976-77, and Industry Structure Abstract: U.S. cattle-feeding businesses operated at a loss in 1976 and 1977. Fed-beef production costs in 1977 averaged $43.55 per 100 pounds marketed, while the national average price feedlots received per 100 pounds for slaughter steers and heifers was $39. Farmer feedlots in the Midwest, those feeding less than 1,000 head of cattle, had higher production costs and lost more money than did commercial feedlots in the West. The largest direct costs for both types of feedlot were for replacement feeder cattle and for feed. Keywords: Agribusiness, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 32 Number: 307701 Creation-Date: 1979-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307701 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307701/files/aer424.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307701 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zeimetz, Kathryn A Title: Growing Energy: Land for Biomass Farms Abstract: Biomass crops grown for energy conversion require high-quality land to maximize energy gain and minimize environmental hazards. The shortage of such land may hinder development of energy farms. Most of the 760 million acres of classes I-IV rural land of sufficient quality to support biomass production would need considerable conservation measures to overcome inherent development problems. Furthermore, alternative sources of food and fiber production would need to be found if the land were diverted to energy farms. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 39 Number: 307702 Creation-Date: 1979-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307702 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307702/files/aer425.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307702 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gallo, Anthony E. Author-Name: Salathe, Larry E. Author-Name: Boehm, William T. Title: Senior Citizens: Food Expenditure Patterns and Assistance Abstract: The Older Americans Act of 1965, amended in 1972, states that many senior citizens eat inadequately because they lack financial means, knowledge, and mobility to purchase and prepare nourishing foods. This report examines how food purchasing patterns of senior citizens compare with other age groups. The age of household head exerts a considerable influence on family food expenditure patterns. Households in which the head was 65 years or over spent more per person on food prepared at home and less on food away from home than households headed by persons of other age groups. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 14 Number: 307703 Creation-Date: 1979-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307703 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307703/files/aer426.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307703 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lough, Harold W. Title: Dairy Manufacturing Plant Capacity and Utilization Abstract: A study of equipment and operating schedules of 169 large dairy manufacturing plants reveals adequate capacity to handle seasonally high levels of milk production. Plants in the Northeast generally operate less intensively than plants in the North Central or Western areas. Larger plants and cheese plants generally have newer equipment and operate closer to capacity. Keywords: Agribusiness, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 34 Number: 307704 Creation-Date: 1979-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307704 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307704/files/aer427.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307704 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davis, Christopher G. Author-Name: Cessna, Jerry Title: Prospects for Growth in U.S. Dairy Exports to Southeast Asia Abstract: Food demand in Southeast Asia (SEA) is expected to grow in the coming decades, creating pportunities for exporters of dairy products. The top dairy product suppliers to the region are New Zealand, the European Union (EU), the United States, and Australia. This study analyzes trends in market share over the 2006-18 timeframe and the price sensitivity for the top four U.S. dairy products imported by SEA countries: skim milk powder (SMP), whey products, cheese, and lactose. In 2018, these four products accounted for 85 percent of the total value of SEA dairy imports from the United States. Our findings show differing trends in market share and price sensitivity across products and countries. Our analysis reveals that SEA importers are more likely to substitute U.S. products for EU dairy products than for dairy products from New Zealand or Australia. Our research indicates that the United States has the potential to gain market share as import expenditures increase (holding prices constant) for cheese in Indonesia; whey products in Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines; SMP in Indonesia and Vietnam; and lactose in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. SEA imports of U.S. dairy products are sensitive, in varying degrees, to changes in U.S. prices—as well as price changes for products from competing suppliers, such as the EU, Australia, and New Zealand. Keywords: Food Security and Poverty Length: 52 Number: 307713 Creation-Date: 2020-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307713 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307713/files/USDA%20Prospects%20for%20Growth%20in%20U.S.%20Dairy%20Exports%20to%20Southeast%20Asia.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307713 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reichelderfer, Katherine H. Title: Economic Feasibility of a Biological Control Technology: Using a Parasitic Wasp, Pediobius Foveolatus, to Manage Mexican Bean Beetle on Soybeans Abstract: Biological and conventional control can yield similar economic returns to pest control expenditures. Finding is based on economic feasibility study of using the parasitic wasp, Pediobius foveolatus, in place of conventional insecticides to control Mexican bean beetle on soybeans. Insect scouting in conjunction with use of the parasite is also compared with conventional control. Widespread use of the parasite to control the beetle could reduce use of insecticides without compromising soybean producers' revenues. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 24 Number: 307719 Creation-Date: 1979-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307719 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307719/files/aer430.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307719 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service Title: Status of the Family Farm: Second Annual Report to Congress Abstract: Farm production and sales are becoming more concentrated; 125,000 farms accounted for half of all farms sales in 1974, which required 205,000 farms a decade before. The average age of farm operators steadily increased from 48.7 years in 1945 to 51.7 years in 1974, as fewer younger farmers entered farming than older operators retired or sold out. Changes in the relationship between the farm and marketing sectors forced farmers to consider forward contracting and farmer-to-consumer direct marketing. About $2 billion were disbursed in the 1978 farm programs, but most of the benefits went to the larger farms. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 56 Number: 307720 Creation-Date: 1979-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307720 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307720/files/aer434.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307720 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lu, Yao-chi Author-Name: Cline, Philip Author-Name: Quance, Leroy Title: Prospects for Productivity Growth in U.S. Agriculture Abstract: The growth rate for U.S. agricultural productivity through the year 2000 may equal the historical rate if research and extension (R & E) investment increases and unprecedented technologies develop. The level of public expenditures in agricultural R & E is the single most important policy variable in determining growth rates. The most promising new technologies are photosynthesis enhancement (formation of plant carbohydrates through exposure to light), bioregulators (compounds which promote ripening or prolong shelf life) in crop production, and twinning in beef cattle production. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 90 Number: 307753 Creation-Date: 1979-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307753 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307753/files/aer435.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307753 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sloggett, Gordon Title: Energy and U.S. Agriculture: Irrigation Pumping, 1974-77 Abstract: Land irrigated with onfarm pump water increased by more than 5 million acres from 1974 to 1977. Energy costs to pump the water increased from $570 million to more than $1 billion during the period. Yet increased costs failed to slow pump irrigation. Electricity was used most to power pumps for irrigated acreage, followed by natural gas, diesel, liquified petroleum gas (LPG), and gasoline. Diesel used to pump irrigation water about doubled from 1974 to 1977, with modest increases for electricity and natural gas. The use of LPG and gasoline declined. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 43 Number: 307844 Creation-Date: 1979-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307844 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307844/files/aer436.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307844 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service Title: Structure Issues of American Agriculture: Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Labor and Human Capital, Land Economics/Use, Marketing, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 312 Number: 307871 Creation-Date: 1979 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307871 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307871/files/aer438.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307871 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Smith, Richard B. Author-Name: Brown, Judy A. Author-Name: Weimer, Jon P. Title: Consumer Attitudes Toward Food Labeling and Other Shopping Aids Abstract: Most shoppers need and want food labeling and other shopping aids, according to national surveys held in 1976 and 1977 to examine consumer food-related behavior. Survey results also indicate that open dating and individually priced food packages are particularly important to food shoppers. They want more food-storing instructions and nutrition data, while calling for prethaw information on frozen food packages. Shoppers in large households and those with children have a significantly greater interest in most of the shopping aids. Male shoppers, the elderly, and the less educated are least influenced by labeling information. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 38 Number: 307872 Creation-Date: 1979-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307872 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307872/files/aer439.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307872 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lee, Linda K. Title: Interpreting Land Use Change Through Satellite Imagery Abstract: Employing a multiperiod approach to monitor land use change may compound the problems associated with interpretation of satellite imagery. In this feasibility study data from satellite imagery were used to inventory new cropland development in the Great Plains and Southeast between 1972 and 1976. Cloud cover problems, intensified by the two-period approach used, made data more difficult to interpret. Field checks were also more difficult because of the scattered and irregularly shaped land use change sites. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 22 Number: 307873 Creation-Date: 1979-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307873 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307873/files/aer442.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307873 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Handy, Charles R. Author-Name: Sexauer, Benjamin Author-Name: Weingarten, Linda Title: Assessment of Proposed Net Weight Labeling Regulations for Meat And Poultry Products Abstract: Under a December 1977 net weight labeling proposal by USDA affecting meat and poultry products, free liquids and liquids absorbed by the packaging material would be excluded from a product's net weight. This study evaluates the potential economic impact on consumers, industry, and inspection officials. It concludes the proposed regulations have been grossly misunderstood by both consumers and producers. The amount of drained weight meat available for sale would not change under the proposed net weight rule. Although the labeled price per pound would likely increase, the cost to consumers for usable product would remain unchanged. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Institutional and Behavioral Economics Length: 59 Number: 307874 Creation-Date: 1979-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307874 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307874/files/aer443.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307874 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Barton, John A. Title: Transportation Fuel Requirements in the Food and Fiber System Abstract: It took an estimated 2,892 million gallons of diesel fuel and 411 million gallons of gasoline to transport farm inputs, commodities, and manufactured food products in 1977. Truck shipments made up 41 percent of total ton-miles in the food and fiber system and required 2,529 million gallons of petroleum fuels, or 77 percent of the total. Rail movements required 665 million gallons of fuel, or 20 percent. Barge shipments accounted for most of the remainder. Demands for transportation fuel in the food and fiber system are likely to continue to increase in the foreseeable future. Keywords: Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 43 Number: 307875 Creation-Date: 1980-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307875 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307875/files/aer444.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307875 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Author-Name: Kohler, George O. Author-Name: Edwards, Richard H. Author-Name: Kuzmicky, Donald D. Author-Name: Vosloh, Carl J., Jr. Title: Producing Pro-Xan (Leaf Protein Concentrate) from Alfalfa: Economics of an Emerging Technology Abstract: Modifications in the process of separating alfalfa into a low-fiber leaf protein concentrate (Pro-Xan) and high-fiber press cake have increased Pro-Xan yields and reduced natural gas use. Since completion of a 1975 USDA economic evaluation of Pro-Xan processing, these modifications and changes in input prices have altered the returns on investment. This report updates the earlier study, reevaluating the economic effects of these input price changes and estimating the market potential for Pro-Xan in the United States. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 43 Number: 307876 Creation-Date: 1980-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307876 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307876/files/aer445.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307876 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Boehm, William T. Author-Name: Nelson, Paul E. Author-Name: Longen, Kathryn A. Title: Progress Toward Eliminating Hunger in America Abstract: Food assistance funds in the United States have generally gone to areas most in need. Assistance in the most needy U.S. counties averaged $21.98 per person in 1967. By 1976, it had increased to $153.91. Corresponding figures for the least needy counties were $2.04 in 1967 and $26.35 in 1976. Food assistance payments accounted for almost 18 percent of each real dollar increase in per capita retail food sales in the neediest counties. Additional food spending was influenced more by increases in food assistance payments than by increases in earned income. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 40 Number: 307877 Creation-Date: 1980-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307877 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307877/files/aer446.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307877 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichler, Marilyn E. Author-Name: DeBraal, J. Peter Author-Name: Wunderlich, Gene Author-Name: Green, Judith Title: Foreign Ownership of U.S. Agricultural Land Abstract: Foreigners owned 5.2 million acres of U.S. agricultural land as of October 31, 1979. This is less than 0.5 percent of all privately held agricultural land, and less than 0.25 percent of all land in the United States. This share is unlikely to have any aggregate impact on agriculture, positive or negative. However, some communities could be locally affected in areas of heaviest concentration. These conclusions are based on an analysis of reports submitted in compliance with the Agricultural Foreign Investment Disclosure Act of 1978. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 40 Number: 307878 Creation-Date: 1980-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307878 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307878/files/aer447.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307878 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Young, Kenneth B. Author-Name: Coomer, Jerry M. Title: Effects of Natural Gas Price Increases on Texas High Plains Irrigation, 1976-2025 Abstract: The effects of increasing natural gas prices on crop water use and net crop income under alternative crop prices were determined for a 32-county region of the Texas High Plains. An increase in natural gas prices could substantially reduce irrigation over the projection period, based on results from a recursive linear programming model. The price of natural gas, and not the quantity of remaining ground water reserves, may now become the restrictive factor. Irrigation of major crops--based on increasing natural gas prices--is projected to end in 1995 and annual net crop income to fall from $277 million to $164 million. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 37 Number: 307879 Creation-Date: 1980-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307879 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307879/files/aer448.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307879 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Boykin, Calvin C. Author-Name: Gilliam, Henry C. Author-Name: Gustafson, Ronald A. Title: Structural Characteristics of Beef Cattle Raising in the United States Abstract: This report describes the four cattle raising systems used in five regions identified in the United States in 1976. The systems identified in the West, Southwest, Southeast, Great Plains, and North Central regions--the cow-calf system, cow-calf-slaughter system, the stocker purchase-slaughter system, and the stocker purchase-feeder sales system--accounted for 70, 9, 8, and 4 percent, respectively, of the cattle raising systems used in all regions. Keywords: Farm Management, Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Productivity Analysis Length: 116 Number: 307880 Creation-Date: 1980-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307880 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307880/files/aer450.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307880 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harrison, Virden L. Title: Sheep Production: Intensive Systems, Innovative Techniques Boost Yields Abstract: Lamb production per ewe can be doubled or tripled through intensive management practices and by use of certain innovations. Some of these practices include selecting for ewes that produce multiple births, inducing twice-a-year lambing, breeding ewes to lamb at one year of age, formulating diets for optimal weight gain and nutrition, and controlling losses due to diseases, parasites, and predators. New technologies are described and cost and return budgets are prepared for four types of sheep systems: two intensive management types and two pasture and open range types. Intensive sheep production using the latest innovations can, be profitable at lamb prices near the 1979 level of about $65 to $70 per hundredweight. Keywords: Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 48 Number: 307881 Creation-Date: 1980-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307881 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307881/files/aer452.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307881 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Title: Solar-Assisted Combination Grain Drying: An Economic Evaluation Abstract: A solar-assisted combination grain drying system could result in a 53-percent savings in fossil fuel under optimum conditions. It must be integrated into the planned harvest schedule and other farm energy needs for profitable results. Savings under the most favorable conditions studied showed a 6.6-percent return on investment. Solar collectors costing more than $10 per square foot will likely find little acceptance in a combination drying system at current fossil fuel prices. Keywords: Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 19 Number: 307882 Creation-Date: 1980-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307882 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307882/files/aer453.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307882 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Title: Evaluation of Pesticide Supplies and Demand For 1980 Abstract: Pesticide supplies for the 1980 crop season should be adequate to meet overall farm needs. Net supplies should be about 2 percent greater than last year, and prices about 10 percent higher. Manufacturers' insecticide supplies are off by 3 percent, but there are larger, than normal stock carryovers for distributors, dealers, and farmers. Farmers’ herbicide requirements will rise about 2 to 5 percent this year. Insecticide use is likely to be up 8 to 10 percent over 1979’s abnormally low levels. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Productivity Analysis Length: 23 Number: 307883 Creation-Date: 1980-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307883 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307883/files/aer454.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307883 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dalrymple, Dana G. Title: Development and Spread of Semi-Dwarf Varieties of Wheat and Rice in the United States: An International Perspective Abstract: Semi-dwarf, high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice, along with associated inputs, have formed the basis of what has popularly been known as the “green revolution” in many developing nations. This report traces the development and use of comparable semi-dwarf varieties in the United States. It is the first general publication on the subject. Particular attention is given to the important role played by foreign varieties, especially those generated by international agricultural research centers, in the improvement of wheat and rice in the United States. Neither crop is indigenous to the United States so that all the ancestors of present varieties have been “immigrants.” The genetic source of semi-dwarfism is usually the same for both the U.S. varieties and those in developing nations. The report covers the following main subjects: history of production and varietal improvement, development and use of semi-dwarf wheat, development and use of semi-dwarf rice, associated technological factors, changes in yields, evaluating economic impact, and institutional linkages. By late 1979, 147 semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and 6 of rice had been released. Many of these included varieties developed in the international centers in their ancestry. Semi-dwarf wheat was planted on about 22 percent of the U.S. wheat area in 1974 and roughly 29 percent in 1979. Semi-dwarf rice varieties represented about 9 percent of the U.S. rice area in 1979. The semi-dwarfs have represented an evolutionary rather than revolutionary change. Their use is likely to expand. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 166 Number: 307884 Creation-Date: 1980-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307884 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307884/files/aer455.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307884 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: Foreign Investment in the U.S. Food and Agricultural System: An Overview Abstract: Foreign direct investment in U.S. firms and real estate about doubled between 1973 and 1978. In response, several studies were commissioned by the Executive Branch to ascertain the level and influence of foreign investment and to require reporting of foreign investment in U.S. agricultural land. Most of the increase in direct investment came from Western Europe and Canada, not from oil exporting countries. Foreign investors do not have dominant control of firms throughout the input, production, marketing, and processing of any one food item. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 93 Number: 307885 Creation-Date: 1980-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307885 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307885/files/aer456.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307885 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Meekhof, Ronald Author-Name: Gill, Mohinder Author-Name: Tyner, Wallace Title: Gasohol: Prospects and Implications Abstract: Gasohol, a mixture of 90 percent unleaded gasoline and 10 percent anhydrous alcohol, has become commercially viable as a motor fuel because of Federal and State subsidies and high prices for petroleum. Significant alcohol production using corn as a feedstock would lead to higher corn production and prices and somewhat lower soybean production and prices. The impact on the U.S. balance of trade would be negligible at current petroleum and commodity prices. High levels of corn use in alcohol production could reduce stocks substantially, and thereby destabilize corn, livestock, and food prices. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 35 Number: 307886 Creation-Date: 1980-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307886 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307886/files/aer458.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307886 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brokken, Ray F. Author-Name: O'Connor, Carl W. Author-Name: Nordblom, Thomas L. Title: Costs of Reducing Grain Feeding of Beef Cattle Abstract: Fattening cattle in feedlots is the cheapest way to produce beef, at prevailing feed prices. If cattle were slaughtered at lighter than usual weight after only a short time on grain feeding, production costs per pound would increase and beef output would decrease. Six alternative beef production systems that varied the time that animals were placed in the feedlot and their slaughter weights were analyzed at various levels of grain and forage prices. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 31 Number: 307887 Creation-Date: 1980-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307887 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307887/files/aer459.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307887 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Author-Name: Shugars, Owen K. Title: Burley Tobacco Farming Characteristics and Potential for Change Abstract: Burley tobacco farms in five areas of Kentucky and Tennessee averaged 2.4 acres of tobacco. Burley producers harvested an average of 23 acres of other crops in addition to burley tobacco. Sixty-three percent of the farms produced livestock. Over two-thirds of the operator households had one or more members with off-farm employment in 1976. An average of 342 hours of labor was used per acre to produce the burley crop. The small burley acreages per farm constrain development and adoption of labor-saving technology. Loose leaf sales of burley may offer the greatest potential for cost savings to farmers. This report provides a basis for understanding the structure of burley tobacco farming and evaluating technological, institutional, and demand changes. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 46 Number: 307888 Creation-Date: 1980-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307888 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307888/files/aer460.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307888 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lough, Harold W. Title: Cheese Pricing Abstract: Cheese prices, key market indicators for the entire dairy industry, rose rapidly in the seventies because of rising demand for cheese. Cheese prices nationwide follow those on the National Cheese Exchange, which itself handles less than 1 percent of total U.S. cheese production. Retailers usually give cheese the highest profit margin of all dairy products; since 1973, retail cheese prices have risen more rapidly than wholesale prices. Dairy farmers receive about 48 cents for the milk used in $1 worth of cheese at the retail level; processing, packaging, and marketing take the other 52 cents. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Productivity Analysis Length: 46 Number: 307889 Creation-Date: 1980-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307889 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307889/files/aer462.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307889 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Prentice, Paul T. Author-Name: Schertz, Lyle P. Title: Inflation: A Food and Agricultural Perspective Abstract: Inflation, a rise in the general price level, affects agriculture in four basic ways. It increases prices of farm products and inputs, encourages farmers to purchase more capital inputs, increases the wealth of those who own the land, and strengthens the relative economic position of high-income people, farm and nonfarm, in buying land. Since the late sixties, changes in prices paid for farm inputs and changes in prices received for farm products have closely corresponded to changes in the general price level. Under inflationary conditions, gains by some often depend on losses by others. This report provides a basis for understanding the causes and effects of inflation as related to agriculture and the conflicting objectives of aiding clientele groups and stopping inflation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Public Economics Length: 52 Number: 307898 Creation-Date: 1981-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307898 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307898/files/aer463.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307898 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Title: Farm Pesticide Economic Evaluation, 1981 Abstract: Insecticide purchases for 1981 will increase 10 to 15 percent over the last 2 years, when use was down because of light insect infestations. Herbicide use will rise about 5 percent. Supplies of nearly all pesticides should be ample because of unusually large carryover stocks. Prices may be up about 10 percent because of rising production and distribution costs. Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration (RPAR) proposed decisions were published by EPA for four pesticides in 1980: diallate, lindane, EDB, and strychnine. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Farm Management, Productivity Analysis Length: 26 Number: 307899 Creation-Date: 1981-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307899 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307899/files/aer464.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307899 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Title: The Young Solar Collector: An Evaluation of Its Multiple Farm Uses Abstract: The homemade, low-cost Young flat-plate solar collector, well suited for multiple agricultural uses, was designed by a Nebraska farm couple and personnel from the Small Farm Energy Project. It is portable and tillable, with a flexible airflow system. The collector satisfactorily dried grain and heated the Young farm home. Use of the collector in the fall and winter of 1979 saved 331 gallons of propane worth $179. Net energy savings yielded an 11.2-percent return on investment and, including allowable tax credits, gave a payback of 5.8 years, making this collector--with an expected 20-year life--an attractive investment for farmers and lending institutions. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 24 Number: 307900 Creation-Date: 1981-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307900 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307900/files/aer466.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307900 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Armbruster, Walter J. Author-Name: Helmuth, John W. Title: Contract Price Reporting for Fruits and Vegetables Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: In summary, we recommend that the AMS fruit and vegetable market news program report contract prices and terms to complement reporting of fresh market prices which are widely available for most fruits and vegetables. The marketing system has changed since the institution of the Federal-State market news reporting system with its heavy emphasis on fresh market commodities. It is time to move ahead with expanded coverage of the processing segment of the market, which is now larger than the fresh market segment for major fruits and vegetables. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Marketing Length: 26 Number: 307901 Creation-Date: 1981-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307901 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307901/files/aer467.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307901 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Boehlje, Michael Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth Title: Economic and Federal Tax Factors Affecting the Choice of a Legal Farm Business Organization Abstract: Recently reduced corporate income tax rates and inflation-induced higher tax rates for individuals provide incentives for farmers with taxable incomes above $25,000 to incorporate. Above that level, incorporated farms generally pay less in taxes than unincorporated farms. Compared with sole proprietorships and partnerships, corporations can often accomplish estate planning goals more easily through use of stock and debentures, can purchase certain employee fringe benefits at a lower after-tax cost, and can frequently reduce income taxes further by dividing the farm income among multiple entities (two or more corporations or individuals, each with different responsibilities). Keywords: Farm Management, Financial Economics Length: 50 Number: 307902 Creation-Date: 1981-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307902 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307902/files/aer468.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307902 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jensen, Harald R. Author-Name: Hatch, Thomas C. Author-Name: Harrington, David H. Title: Economic Well-Being of Farms: Third Annual Report to Congress on the Status of Family Farms Abstract: A farm’s economic well-being depends greatly on its tenure arrangements (ownership and rental of farm resources) and equity (proportion of assets owned debt free). Farms in the best financial condition are fully owned and debt free (usually established farms). Part-owner farms (operator owns part of the land, rents the rest, and owns all machinery and livestock) are also in good shape. The weakest farms are tenant-operated farms with little equity (usually beginning farmers) and full owner farms with 50-percent equity. The effects of size, wealth, income, and five different tenure-equity arrangements are analyzed here for 20 illustrative farms. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Consumer/Household Economics, Farm Management Length: 50 Number: 307903 Creation-Date: 1981-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307903 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307903/files/aer469.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307903 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Title: Trends in Flue-Cured Tobacco Farming Abstract: Mechanical harvesting, bulk barn curing, and acres of flue-cured tobacco produced per farm increased substantially during 1972-79, while labor used to harvest tobacco dropped by 35 percent, from 72 million to 47 million hours. Only 16 percent of the tobacco producers owned all the quota they produced in 1979; 63 percent rented some land with quota and 43 percent leased some quota. This study identifies trends in flue-cured tobacco farming in four Southeastern States. The amount of labor used to harvest flue-cured tobacco in the next few years will likely drop as mechanical harvesting and acres per farm increase. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 31 Number: 307904 Creation-Date: 1981-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307904 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307904/files/aer470.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307904 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jesse, Edward V. Author-Name: Johnson, Aaron C., Jr. Title: Effectiveness of Federal Marketing Orders for Fruits And Vegetables Abstract: Prices for fruits and vegetables sold under Federal marketing orders generally have not exceeded prices for similar commodities not covered by orders. Nor have order commodity prices been significantly more stable from year to year. Orders that limit quantity marketed and apply to all domestic production show historical commodity price patterns that are statistically indistinguishable from price patterns for commodities covered by weaker orders. However, orders may tend to be instituted more frequently for products with extreme price variability; and they may be only partially successful in reducing that instability. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 53 Number: 307906 Creation-Date: 1981-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307906 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307906/files/aer471.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307906 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Miller, Thomas A. Author-Name: Rodewald, Gordon E. Author-Name: McElroy, Robert G. Title: Economies of Size in U.S. Field Crop Farming Abstract: Economies of size refers to the relative cost efficiency associated with different firm sizes. As farm size increases in most field crop regions, per-unit costs decline at first and then are relatively constant. Medium-size commercial farms ($41,000 to $76,000 gross income) achieve most available technical cost efficiencies. Society would likely benefit little in terms of lower real food costs from further increase in the size of these farms. Apparently economies of size are not a major factor in farm enlargement; farmers expand their farms to increase income rather than to reduce per-unit costs. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 42 Number: 307907 Creation-Date: 1981-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307907 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307907/files/aer472.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307907 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, William Author-Name: Johnson, James Author-Name: Calvin, Linda Title: Farm Commodity Programs: Who Participates and Who Benefits? Abstract: Ten percent of the participants in U.S. commodity programs for wheat, feed grains, cotton, and rice received 47 percent of the 1978 payments. Those farmers were the largest participants, having 500 acres or more of crops. The smallest 50 percent of participants received 10 percent of the payments. The $40,000 ceiling on payments to individuals had a negligible effect on the distribution of payments: the limit affected only 0.16 percent of participants, and payments foregone amounted to only 1.33 percent of the total. Proposals to prohibit payments to corporations would not have a significant impact because few corporations grow program commodities. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management Length: 79 Number: 307908 Creation-Date: 1981-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307908 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307908/files/aer474.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307908 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lee, Linda K. Title: Potential Cropland: The Ownership Factor Abstract: At least 43 percent of the 127 million acres of U.S. land with high or medium potential for cropland is held by landowners whose characteristics may inhibit cropland development. Owners of potential cropland tend to have smaller holdings, lower net farm incomes, and less active involvement in agriculture than current cropland owners. About 20 percent of the potential cropland lies in small or fragmented holdings or faces competition from urbanization or nonagricultural uses. Another 23 percent is owned by those with short planning horizons and capital problems. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 13 Number: 307909 Creation-Date: 1981-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307909 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307909/files/aer476.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307909 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Agricultural Marketing Service Title: A Review of Federal Marketing Orders for Fruits, Vegetables, and Specialty Crops: Economic Efficiency and Welfare Implications Abstract: Extract from the report Preface: The charge to the review team was to "focus on the (marketing order) programs’ effects on economic efficiency, costs, and productivity.” Special attention was to be given "to those regulations that enable agricultural industries to control quantities of commodities marketed through various means such as reserve pools, producer allotments, rate-of-flow provisions and shipping holidays." Policy options encompassing both legislative and administrative changes were to be defined and analyzed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 119 Number: 307910 Creation-Date: 1981-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307910 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307910/files/aer477.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307910 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sloggett, Gordon Title: Prospects for Ground-Water Irrigation: Declining Levels and Rising Energy Costs Abstract: Ground water, an irreplaceable resource tapped from underground reservoirs, is decreasing in 11 major irrigating States. Pumping from greater depths will add to irrigation fuel costs, but rising energy prices will likely be a more serious constraint to expanded ground-water irrigation. Declining ground-water levels may not significantly reduce the irrigated area in the United States until well into the next century. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 48 Number: 307911 Creation-Date: 1981-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307911 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307911/files/aer478.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307911 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Davenport, Charles Author-Name: Boehlje, Michael D. Author-Name: Martin, David B. H. Title: The Effects of Tax Policy on American Agriculture Abstract: Federal tax policy appears to have a significant impact on American agriculture. Generally, tax policy has led to upward pressure on farmland prices, larger farm sizes, incentives for farm incorporation, altered management practices, and increased use of farmland as a tax shelter—by both farmers and nonfarmers. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Farm Management, Land Economics/Use, Public Economics Length: 70 Number: 307912 Creation-Date: 1982-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307912 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307912/files/aer480.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307912 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sharples, Jerry A. Title: An Evaluation of U.S. Grain Reserve Policy, 1977-80 Abstract: This report examines the costs and benefits of the U.S. grain reserve policy over its first 3 years. The policy, instituted in 1977, consisted of the farmer-owned reserve (FOR), new rules for releasing CCC-owned grain, and an expanded loan program to help farmers finance construction of grain storage facilities. During the years studied, the policy provided over $1 billion in incentives and payments to expand the quantity of grain stored in the United States. In return, the United States obtained more buffer stocks, more storage facilities, more Government control of the Nation's grain, and somewhat higher grain prices as the reserve accumulated. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 49 Number: 307913 Creation-Date: 1982-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307913 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307913/files/aer481.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307913 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Enochian, Robert V. Title: Solar- and Wind-Powered Irrigation Systems Abstract: Five different direct solar and wind energy systems are technically feasible for powering irrigation pumps. However, with projected rates of fossil fuel costs, only two may produce significant unsubsidized energy for irrigation pumping before the turn of the century. These are photovoltaic systems with nonconcentrating collectors (providing that projected costs of manufacturing solar cells prove correct); and wind systems, especially in remote areas where adequate wind is available. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 33 Number: 307914 Creation-Date: 1982-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307914 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307914/files/aer482.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307914 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Johnson, James D. Author-Name: Rizzi, Richard W. Author-Name: Short, Sara D. Author-Name: Fulton, R. Thomas Title: Provisions of the Agriculture and Food Act of 1981 Abstract: The Agriculture and Food Act of 1981 authorizes many farm programs for 4 years. This report summarizes its provisions by title. Commodity program provisions discussed for wheat, feed grains, cotton, rice, peanuts, soybeans, sugar, dairy, and wool and mohair include price supports, loan levels, disaster payments, and program acreage. Other provisions summarized include miscellaneous; grain reserves; the national agricultural cost of production standards review board; agricultural exports and P.L.-480; food stamps; research, extension, and teaching; resource conservation; credit, rural development, and family farms; floral research and consumer information. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 30 Number: 307917 Creation-Date: 1982-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307917 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307917/files/aer483.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307917 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Grinnell, Gerald Author-Name: Friedman, Lawrence Title: Productivity Potential in Dry Grocery Warehouses Abstract: Food distributors in the United States could substantially improve their productivity by making better use of existing technology. Direct labor costs could have been reduced by $700 million in 1981 by changing work assignments, obtaining a more balanced day-to-day workload, using new equipment, increasing use of unitized loads, altering some product handling practices, and partially mechanizing, according to this study of dry grocery warehouses. Keywords: Labor and Human Capital, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 23 Number: 307918 Creation-Date: 1982-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307918 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307918/files/aer484.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307918 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eichers, Theodore R. Author-Name: Serletis, William S Title: Farm Pesticide Supply-Demand Trends, 1982 Abstract: Pesticide demand in 1982 should be down less than 5 percent from last year. Manufacturers report price increases of 6 to 8 percent to their distributors, but plentiful supplies and weak demand should hold farm price increases to only 5 percent over last spring. Pesticide production should increase 11 percent, satisfying both domestic and export demand for 1982. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Productivity Analysis Length: 28 Number: 307919 Creation-Date: 1982-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307919 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307919/files/aer485.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307919 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stafford, Thomas H. Author-Name: Grinnell, Gerald E. Title: Structure and Performance of Grocery Products Brokers Abstract: The grocery products brokerage industry is generally competitive. Concentration is low in segments of the industry that primarily sell in local markets and high for brokers who sell nationally. Entry into the industry is not restricted and other types of wholesalers account for a large share of sales in the more concentrated industry segments. Brokers have been losing business to manufacturers' sales offices, and this trend could continue. Operating expenses and commission rates, which are highly correlated, vary with the type of products handled and establishment size. Large operations have the lowest rates, on average. Keywords: Agribusiness, Industrial Organization, Production Economics Length: 62 Number: 307920 Creation-Date: 1982-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307920 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307920/files/aer490.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307920 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zepp, Glenn A. Title: Costs of Producing Potatoes: 1980 and 1981 with Projections for 1982 Abstract: Costs of production for fresh potatoes will increase only slightly for 1982; substantially reduced seed costs should offset other operating cost increases. Processing potato costs should range from almost unchanged in the Red River Valley to a 4.2-percent increase in western Idaho. Central Wisconsin showed the lowest total cost for producing fresh potatoes, while Maine had a cost advantage over other producing areas for supplying fresh potatoes to northeastern U.S. markets. Eastern Idaho showed the highest cost per hundredweight for fresh potatoes. Washington's Columbia River Basin had the lowest cost for growing, harvesting, and storing processing potatoes, while the Minnesota/North Dakota Red River Valley had the highest. This study estimates costs for producing, storing, and packing potatoes in major U.S. production regions during 1980 and 1981 with projections for 1982. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 104 Number: 307921 Creation-Date: 1982-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307921 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307921/files/aer491.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307921 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bluestone, Herman Title: Employment Growth in Metro and Nonmetro America: A Change in the Pattern? Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Labor and Human Capital Length: 8 Number: 307922 Creation-Date: 1982 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307922 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307922/files/aer492.pdf File-Format: application/pdf File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307922/files/aer492_2.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307922 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Author-Name: Trotter, Warren K. Title: Progress of Solar Technology and Potential Farm Uses Abstract: The most efficient use of solar energy on farms is space heating and cooling of livestock buildings, drying crops, and heating farm homes. Low-cost, homemade solar collectors, having multiple uses and a payback of less than 5 years, are the most popular systems. In contrast, most commercially produced systems are still too expensive for agricultural uses, partly because they fail to qualify for tax credits as large as those allowed for residential uses. The solar industry has shown little interest in marketing the low-cost technologies specifically developed for agriculture. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 119 Number: 307923 Creation-Date: 1982-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307923 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307923/files/aer489.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307923 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Horsfield, James Author-Name: Landgren, Norman Title: Cropland Trends Across the Nation Abstract: Global agricultural demand spurred expansion of U.S. cropland use over the last decade to a record 391 million acres in 1981, 4 million acres more than the previous record established in 1949. The contraction of cropland use after 1949 and subsequent expansion in the seventies was accompanied by major regional shifts in the pattern of agricultural land use revealed by analysis of county data over the period 1949-78. Cropland acreage increased in the Corn Belt, Delta States, Southern Plains, and Mountain regions during 1949-78, and declined in the Northeast, Appalachian, and Southeast regions. Factors such as regional comparative advantage and natural resource development triggered regional expansion and contraction of cropland use. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 28 Number: 307924 Creation-Date: 1982-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307924 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307924/files/aer494.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307924 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sloggett, Gordon Title: Energy and U.S. Agriculture: Irrigation Pumping, 1974-80 Abstract: Land irrigated with onfarm pumped water increased 7.5 million acres to 42 million acres from 1974 to 1980. Sharply higher energy prices pushed energy pumping costs from $570 million to $1.9 billion. Pump irrigators are applying energy-saving technologies such as low-pressure center pivots, which alone saved about $42 million in 1980. Favorable economic conditions could lead to 3 to 4 million additional pump-irrigated acres in the water-short Great Plains by the year 2020 and significant increases in the more humid Eastern United States. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 44 Number: 307925 Creation-Date: 1982-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307925 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307925/files/aer495.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307925 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jones, W. Webster Title: Milk Processor-Distributors' Sales, Costs, and Margins, 1980-81 Abstract: Milk processor-distributors' 1981 pretax profits fell to 53 cents per hundredweight (cwt) of raw materials processed (RMP), 17 cents less than in 1980. Returns per cwt rose by $1.26, but costs rose by $1.43, 91 cents for raw materials and 52 cents for operating costs. Increases in total operating costs per cwt of RMP were largest for the smaller volume processors in 1981. For instance, costs for the five smallest processors jumped by 12.9 percent, but costs for the four largest rose 5.5 percent. Larger percentage increases in volume of RMP in 1981 for many of the larger plants apparently helped to increase productivity, thus holding down unit cost increases, especially for labor. Keywords: Agribusiness, Production Economics Length: 27 Number: 307926 Creation-Date: 1983-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307926 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307926/files/aer497.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307926 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Baker, Allen J. Author-Name: Duewer, Lawrence A. Title: Meat Distribution Patterns in Six Southern Metro Areas Abstract: Increases in meat marketing costs may have been reduced because there are fewer wholesalers in the marketing chain, according to this study of six southern metro areas. Meat wholesalers still dominate the U.S. market where major meat production and consumption areas are widely separated. But, these wholesalers face increasing competition from large chain groceries and restaurants buying meat from packers in the production centers. Wholesalers, to survive, sell in larger lots, accept smaller marketing margins, and service groceries and restaurants with specialty products. The growing trend toward away-from-home eating, much of it in fast food and chain restaurants, has eliminated some services of local wholesalers. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 28 Number: 307927 Creation-Date: 1983-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307927 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307927/files/aer498.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307927 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Christensen, Lee A Author-Name: Norris, Patricia E. Title: A Comparison of Tillage Systems: For Reducing Soil Erosion and Water Pollution Abstract: Cropland in minimum tillage rose from 15.8 percent of all cropland in 1973 to 29.1 percent in 1981. The share for no-till rose from 2.0 to 2.9 percent during the same period. These conservation tillage systems--minimum tillage and no-till--can also reduce soil loss up to 99 percent over conventional tillage. This report looks at trends in the use of various tillage systems and compares their economic impacts and effects on soil and water conservation, crop yields, and pesticide and energy use, using selected results from studies of tillage systems. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 32 Number: 307928 Creation-Date: 1983-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307928 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307928/files/aer499.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307928 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hanthorn, Michael Author-Name: Duffy, Michael Title: Returns to Corn Pest Management Practices Abstract: Productivity of pesticides applied to nonirrigated corn is estimated and the nonchemical pest management practices used by corn farmers in the 10 major producing States during 1980 are discussed. The return to $1 spent on herbicides and Insecticides was $1.05 and $1.03, respectively. Corn farmers generally applied herbicides and insecticides at optimal levels in 1980. Yields did not vary among tillage systems, but were significantly lower for farmers who mechanically cultivated their fields more than once after planting compared to farmers who cultivated less. Pesticide use and cost varied significantly among these cultural practices. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Productivity Analysis Length: 20 Number: 307949 Creation-Date: 1983-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307949 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307949/files/aer501.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307949 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Van Arsdall, Roy N. Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Title: Characteristics of Farmer Cattle Feeding Abstract: Fed cattle production grew by one-third during 1964-80. Meanwhile, the number of farmer cattle feeder operations fell by about half to only 113,000 as commercial feedlot enterprises effectively used capital, labor, and marketing to seize over 70 percent of the market. The drop in number of individual farmers who feed cattle should continue in the eighties. Overall, feedlots operated by farmers are becoming fewer but larger as numbers decline east of the Mississippi River, and as cattle feeders establish more farms in the western Corn Belt and southern High Plains. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 48 Number: 307950 Creation-Date: 1983-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307950 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307950/files/aer503.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307950 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Harrington, David H. Author-Name: Reimund, Donn A. Author-Name: Baum, Kenneth H. Author-Name: Peterson, R. Neal Title: U.S. Farming in the Early 1980's: Production and Financial Structure Abstract: Long-term trends to fewer and larger farms appear to have slowed sharply in the late seventies and early eighties. High leverage of farm assets, declining asset values, and low commodity prices caused severe cash flow problems for the farm sector In the early eighties, and many farmers incurred sizable losses. Computer simulation models of representative farms in six regions of the country suggest that fully owned farms with modest or no debt should fare reasonably well over the next few years. But part-owner farms and heavily indebted farmers will likely face financial difficulty and declining net worths. Commodity programs were found to contribute significantly to the survival ability of farms. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Financial Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 64 Number: 307951 Creation-Date: 1983-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307951 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307951/files/aer504.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307951 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: U. S. Department of Agriculture Author-Name: U. S. Department of Energy Title: A Biomass Energy Production and Use Plan for the United States, 1983-90 Abstract: This report to the President and the Congress assesses the feasibility of achieving the Energy Security Act's goal of producing 8.4 billion gallons of alcohol per year--equal to 10 percent of all U.S. gasoline consumption--by 1990. The goal, though technologically attainable, is not economically feasible even under optimistic market scenarios because it would require $41 to $66 billion in Government subsidies over the 1983-90 period. A more realistic maximum potential, with existing subsidies, is 1.5 billion gallons of alcohol fuel per year. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 21 Number: 307952 Creation-Date: 1983-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307952 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307952/files/aer505.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307952 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: Corporate Farming: Importance, Incentives, and State Restrictions Abstract: The number of incorporated farms in the United States rose by 140 percent from 1969-78. Tax advantages provided the chief impetus for farmers to incorporate: corporate tax rates declined in the seventies, while individual tax rates rose, mainly because of inflation. Despite the increase in farm corporations, most farms remain sole proprietorships and most incorporated farms are family farms. Nonfamily farms accounted for only 7 percent of farm sales in 1978. Eleven States had enacted legislation as of 1981 to restrict corporate farm activities (farm operations, vertical integration, and ownership of farmland). Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Farm Management Length: 72 Number: 307953 Creation-Date: 1983-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307953 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307953/files/aer506.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307953 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duffy, Michael Author-Name: Hanthorn, Michael Title: Returns to Corn and Soybean Tillage Practices Abstract: Average per-acre returns differ little for most U.S. corn and soybean farmers using various alternative tillage strategies, according to this analysis of 1980 farm-level production data. Midwest conventional-till soybean farmers, however, accrue a significantly higher average return than do Midwest no-till farmers. Most conservation-till soybean farmers in the three major producing regions incur significantly lower input costs than do conventional-till soybean farmers, but also harvest lower yields except in the Southeast. Significant differences were found in the use of specific corn and soybean inputs among alternative tillage strategies Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 20 Number: 307954 Creation-Date: 1984-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307954 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307954/files/aer508.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307954 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duewer, Lawrence A. Title: Changing Trends in the Red Meat Distribution System Abstract: Meat wholesalers, grocery retailers, and food service firms are becoming fewer In number but larger In size. Direct sales from packer to retailer are decreasing the number of meat wholesalers. The growth of boxed beef is contributing to the shift to more direct sales from packer to retailer. Away-from-home consumption of red meat Is increasing slowly In relation to at-home consumption. Chains are gradually taking more of the grocery retailing and food service industry market. Fast food outlets are the fastest growing segment of the food service industry Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 33 Number: 307955 Creation-Date: 1984-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307955 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307955/files/aer509.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307955 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: LeBlanc, Michael Author-Name: Lutton, Thomas Author-Name: Prato, Tony Author-Name: Reisner, Gary Title: Agricultural Implications of Natural Gas Deregulation Abstract: This report examines the agricultural implications of three policy options for Federal deregulation of natural gas prices for the period 1983-90: a phased-in price decontrol (a modification of the Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978 (NGPA)); 2-year freeze on gas prices; and accelerated decontrol of wellhead gas prices. Differences among the three policies in crop and livestock production, variable costs of production, prices received by farmers, and net farm income are minor. Because gas prices under the modified NGPA and price freeze policies are lower, net farm income and Government payments would be higher than under accelerated decontrol Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 24 Number: 307956 Creation-Date: 1984-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307956 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307956/files/aer512.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307956 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bills, Nelson L. Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Title: Assessing Erosion on U.S. Cropland: Land Management and Physical Features Abstract: The taxonomy of soil erosion presented here delineates land resources with high potential for erosion control . More than one-third of U.S. cropland is inherently nonerosive under all management regimes, about half requires conservation management to keep soil loss within tolerable limits, and the remaining 8 percent is so erosive that acceptable soil loss rates cannot be achieved under intensive cultivation. Nationally, no statistically important relationships were found between characteristics of farm owner-operators and erosiveness of cropland. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 24 Number: 307957 Creation-Date: 1984-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307957 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307957/files/aer513.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307957 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Miller, James J. Title: Impact of Ultra-High Temperature Milk on the U.S. Dairy Industry Abstract: Ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk will probably not emerge as a major alternative to regular fluid milk. Although UHT can be stored without refrigeration, its retail price is higher because of the special containers it needs for long shelf life. More important, as a major product, UHT will not significantly reduce the costs of handling supply-demand variability in the milk-marketing system. The relative costs of processing, distributing, and retailing are estimated in this report with economic engineering, linear programming, and simulation techniques. Keywords: Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 33 Number: 307958 Creation-Date: 1984-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307958 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307958/files/aer516.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307958 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wilson, Paul Author-Name: Ayer, Harry Author-Name: Snider, Gary Title: Drip Irrigation For Cotton: Implications for Farm Profits Abstract: Cotton growers in parts of the arid Southwest can raise their profits by switching to water-saving drip irrigation. In experiments, it has cut water use by up to 50 percent and raised cotton yields by a half bale per acre and more in some locations. New detailed data in this report show that the costs of operating a drip system on a cotton farm in central Arizona are comparable with the costs of operating a conventional furrow irrigation system. The analysis permits an assessment of the profitability of drip-irrigated cotton in the Southwest. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 39 Number: 307960 Creation-Date: 1984-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307960 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307960/files/aer517.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307960 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: Duffy, Michael Title: Control of Exotic Pests: Forecasting Economic Impacts Abstract: Dollar losses beyond the farm gate resulting from the entry and establishment of an exotic crop pest may far exceed the direct losses farmers incur. This case study uses an econometric-simulation model to estimate the benefits to U.S. agriculture of preventing entry or establishment of the exotic soybean pest, Phakopsora pachyrhizi Sydow. Seven scenarios with different disease losses in different soybean-producing regions are simulated. Productivity losses caused by the disease generally elevate growers' income levels because commodity price increases outweigh production losses for most growers. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 23 Number: 307964 Creation-Date: 1984-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307964 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307964/files/aer518.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307964 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McDowell, Robert Title: The Africanized Honey Bee in the United States: What Will Happen to the U.S. Beekeeping Industry? Abstract: The U.S. beekeeping industry may experience annual losses of $26 million to $58 million if the Africanized honey bee (AHB) colonizes the South and Southwest and causes the kinds of problems it has caused elsewhere. If the AHB colonizes the area that has at least 240 frost-free days a year, losses could range from $49 million to $58 million annually, depending on the behavior of the bee. If the AHB colonizes the area south of latitude 32° North, the economic losses could range from $26 million to $31 million annually, depending on the behavior of the AHB. Every aspect of beekeeping—honey and beeswax production, queen and package bee production, pollination, and migratory beekeeping—could be adversely affected. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 42 Number: 307965 Creation-Date: 1984-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307965 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307965/files/aer519.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307965 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gustafson, Greg C. Author-Name: Bills, Nelson L. Title: U.S. Cropland, Urbanization, and Landownership Patterns Abstract: Most U.S. farmland is in no danger of being overrun by urban sprawl. Less than 20 percent of U.S. cropland is in metropolitan counties. Cropland in the Northeast is under more urban pressure than elsewhere because more than three-fourths of it is within or adjacent to urban counties. Ownership patterns of cropland are also different in metropolitan counties, with a higher proportion held in small parcels, by nonfarmers, and by nonfamily corporations than in rural areas. Such differences in ownership patterns may presage conversion of cropland to other uses. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 22 Number: 307966 Creation-Date: 1984-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307966 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307966/files/aer520.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307966 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Title: Product Diversification Trends in U.S. Food Manufacturing Abstract: Leading U.S. food manufacturers typically produce and sell a growing array of food products. Many have also expanded into related wholesale, transportation, and food service industries, while avoiding large-scale involvement in agriculture and food retailing. Diversification by food manufacturers into unrelated product lines declined in the seventies. That decline, coupled with continued increases in diversification into food-related products, led to stabilization in average levels of diversification, after persistent increases since 1919. Successful diversification frequently depends on how readily employees' skills can be transferred to new products. Much recent diversification in the food industries has been based upon the transfer of marketing skills among consumer product industries and technical skills in commodity processing and transportation among producer goods industries. Keywords: Agribusiness, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 50 Number: 307967 Creation-Date: 1985-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307967 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307967/files/aer521.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307967 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jones, Harold B., Jr. Author-Name: Ogden, E. A. Title: Energy Potential from Livestock and Poultry Wastes in the South Abstract: Livestock and poultry wastes could produce significant amounts of biomass energy if conventional energy prices continue to rise. This study estimates the economically recoverable energy available through anaerobic digestion or direct burning of animal wastes in the South for the base year 1980 with projections for 1985 and 1990. Potential thermal energy from livestock and poultry wastes in 1990 could total more than 79.5 trillion Btu, or about 30 percent of the energy from such sources nationwide. The total potential farm value of biomass energy from livestock and poultry enterprises in the South could range from $344 million to $1.08 billion in 1990 depending upon the types of conventional energy displaced. Energy products from these wastes attained their highest value when substituted for LP gas. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 45 Number: 307968 Creation-Date: 1984-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307968 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307968/files/aer522.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307968 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heid, Walter G., Jr. Title: Turning Great Plains Crop Residues and Other Products Into Energy Abstract: Crop residues, such as corn stover, grain sorghum stover, and wheat straw, are abundant sources of fuel energy in the 10-State Great Plains region. These residues and other wastes, such as manure, may be either burned directly or decomposed into methane gas. However, costs of collecting these residues may be too high to be competitive with coal or other conventional fuels. Bulky crop residues and wastes, expensive to transport, can be economically shipped no more than 50 miles to a conversion plant. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 47 Number: 307969 Creation-Date: 1984-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307969 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307969/files/aer523.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307969 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Possible Economic Consequences of Reverting to Permanent Legislation or Eliminating Price and Income Supports Abstract: If the agricultural legislation expiring in 1985 is not replaced, farm price and income supports will revert from the programs provided for in the Agriculture and Food Act of 1981 and subsequent legislation to the programs provided for in the permanent support statutes. Reverting to the permanent support programs, dating back in some cases to the 1930's, would raise price and income support levels significantly and greatly reduce the role of market forces in determining farm returns. Conversely, if all price and income supports were eliminated in 1985, Government intervention in the market would end and supply and demand forces would determine farm returns. Adopting either of these two outerbound policy alternatives would have significant and far-reaching impacts on farm operations, the agribusiness sector, the general economy, and ultimately the world market for farm products. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Political Economy Length: 99 Number: 307970 Creation-Date: 1985-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307970 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307970/files/aer526.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307970 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Title: Factors Affecting U.S. Milk Production Abstract: A 1-percent increase or decrease in milk prices increases or decreases U.S. milk production a total of about half of 1 percent over a 4-year period. This study measures the effects of changes in major economic factors of milk production on the amount of milk dairy farmers produce. The major factors include prices farmers receive for milk; input costs of running a dairy farm (measured here by prices of alfalfa hay and corn); profits farmers would receive in alternative farm enterprises (measured by beef prices and, again, feed prices); and general economic conditions (measured by the unemployment rate). Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 28 Number: 307971 Creation-Date: 1985-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307971 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307971/files/aer527.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307971 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Author-Name: McGuckin, Tom Author-Name: Selley, Roger Author-Name: Willet, Gayle Title: Milk Production: A Four-State Earnings Comparison Abstract: The estimated rate of return to investment in new dairy operations is higher in the Southwestern United States than in Minnesota or Washington, assuming 1981 prices and construction and operating costs. This difference comes from lower investment required per cow, more milk produced per cow, and higher milk prices in the Southwest. The report compares the profitability of dairy farming in Minnesota, Arizona, New Mexico, and Washington. Results indicate that the Southwest likely will continue to increase its share of total U.S. milk production. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 42 Number: 307972 Creation-Date: 1985-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307972 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307972/files/aer528.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307972 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bills, Nelson L. Title: Cropland Rental and Soil Conservation in the United States Abstract: Data from USDA's Resource Economics Survey challenge the common, but not well-substantiated, view that farmers are less concerned with erosion on land they rent than on land they own. At the national level, farmers' conservation efforts—as reflected in crop rotation, tillage practices, and use of conservation practices—on rented cropland compare favorably with those on owner-operated cropland. Nevertheless, rented land is subject to more erosion because a greater proportion of it is used to produce erosive row crops. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Land Economics/Use Length: 19 Number: 307973 Creation-Date: 1985-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307973 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307973/files/aer529.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307973 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Agricultural-Food Policy Review: Commodity Program Perspectives Abstract: From the report Preface: This review brings together background Information useful for evaluating commodity programs. Articles provide an historical overview of U.S. farm policies, a description of the general economic setting in which 1985 farm legislation will operate, an evaluation of the performance of current commodity programs, and a discussion of possible alternative policy tools and concepts. Particular focus is given to the purpose of commodity programs and an economic assessment of their performance. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 259 Number: 307974 Creation-Date: 1985-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307974 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307974/files/aer530.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307974 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reimund, Donn A. Author-Name: Somwaru, Agapi Title: Farm Income by Type of Farm, 1982 and 1983 Abstract: Net farm income in 1983 was higher for most types of crop farms than in 1982 and lower for most types of livestock and poultry farms. Average incomes ranged from $82,000 for vegetable growers to $1,500 for cattle, hog, and sheep producers. Substantial off-farm incomes (averaging more than $17,000 per farm) and low farm incomes on some farm types suggest that farming is a sideline for many. If part-time farms were excluded, or listed separately, the resulting income figures might show farm sector well-being more accurately than the aggregate estimate now used. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 17 Number: 307989 Creation-Date: 1985-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307989 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307989/files/aer531.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307989 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reichelderfer, Katherine H. Title: Do USDA Farm Program Participants Contribute to Soil Erosion? Abstract: Only about one-third of U.S. cropland with excessive soil erosion rates is operated by farmers who might be influenced to reduce erosion if changes were made in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's commodity and soil conservation programs. The present commodity programs may conflict with conservation programs by encouraging the cultivation of erosive crops. Efforts to increase the consistency of USDA commodity and conservation programs would contribute little to overcoming the Nation's total erosion problems. Such efforts, however, should balance conservation objectives with objectives for farm income, commodity prices, production, and export. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Farm Management, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 83 Number: 307990 Creation-Date: 1985-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307990 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307990/files/aer532.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307990 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Paul, Allen B. Author-Name: Heifner, Richard G. Author-Name: Gordon, J. Douglas Title: Farmers' Use of Cash Forward Contracts, Futures Contracts, and Commodity Options Abstract: Unstable farm prices can spur farmers' interest in the various forms of forward selling. Forward selling, which involves selling crops or livestock in advance of delivery, enables farmers to reduce the risk that the price they get for their output might not cover the costs of their inputs and to assure outlets for highly specialized or perishable products. Among the various forms of forward selling are cash forward contracts, futures contracts, and commodity options. This report describes different types of forward contracts, the factors a farmer should consider, and the major pitfalls involved. Keywords: Marketing, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 38 Number: 307991 Creation-Date: 1985-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307991 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307991/files/aer533.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307991 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Analysis of Policies to Conserve Soil and Reduce Surplus Crop Production Abstract: Long-term acreage retirement and conservation-oriented commodity programs have potential for increasing soil conservation while reducing surplus crop production. Current commodity programs tend to discourage conservation. Retirement of land eroding at the highest rates would save the most soil but cost the Government more than other retirement options. Retirement of surplus crop acres targeted to highly erodible land could be cost-effective for both conservation and commodity program objectives. Cross-compliance would not promise widespread conservation benefits and might reduce commodity program effectiveness, but compliance incentives and modest changes in commodity programs could complement other soil protection measures. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 29 Number: 307992 Creation-Date: 1985-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307992 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307992/files/aer534.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307992 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Title: Sodbusting: Land Use Change and Farm Programs Abstract: Farmers converted 11.1 million acres of land to cropland between 1979 and 1981, but only 1.9 million acres were both highly erodible and planted to program crops. Although concern about sodbusting focuses on the Great Plains, such conversion has been occurring in all regions. Analysis of costs and returns indicates that farm programs do provide an incentive to convert highly erodible land to cropland. Participation in price support and subsidized loan programs would have made net returns on 384,000 acres of highly erodible land profitable in 1982. Proposed legislation would remove such incentives, but the proposed system for identifying highly erodible land does not precisely identify new cropland with high potential for excessive erosion. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Land Economics/Use Length: 34 Number: 307993 Creation-Date: 1985-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307993 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307993/files/aer536.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307993 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Langley, James A. Author-Name: Price, J. Michael Title: Implications of Alternative Moving Average Loan Rates Abstract: Setting flexible loan rates on the basis of a "weighted moving average of past market prices allows loan rates to adjust to changes in market trends, yet provides a safety net to farmers. Choice of the particular weight used and the combination of target price and acreage control programs in effect are important to the operation of the rule. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 39 Number: 307994 Creation-Date: 1985-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307994 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307994/files/aer538.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307994 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edwards, Clark Title: U.S. Agriculture's Potential to Supply World Food Markets Abstract: Domestic markets are growing too slowly to absorb increases in U.S. farm production. But reliance on foreign markets can make farmers vulnerable to sudden swings in prices, which are transmitted to other domestic sectors as well. This report assesses U.S. agriculture's capacity to meet domestic and export demands, and the likely consequences of doing so, under different economic assumptions about the future. By shifting production among regions, adopting new technology, and keeping up the quality of its resources, U.S. agriculture could double its exports within the next 30 years. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 56 Number: 307995 Creation-Date: 1985-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307995 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307995/files/aer539.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307995 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: MacDonald, James M. Author-Name: Weimer, Scott A. Title: Increased Foreign Investment in U.S. Food Industries Abstract: Foreign investment in U.S. food manufacturing grew by 60 percent between 1976 and 1982, while it grew by 300 percent in food wholesaling and retailing and grew by 600 percent in the rapidly expanding foodservice industry. Despite the growth, foreign-owned firms still employ only 3.5 percent of the food industry work force. As the world's economies become more closely linked, foreign investment in the U.S. food system should continue to grow. However, exchange rate fluctuations will cause sharp fluctuations in investment; most of the recent increase occurred between 1978 and 1981, as a declining dollar reduced the price of U.S. assets. Since 1981, the strength of the U.S. dollar has reduced foreign investment generally. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade Length: 23 Number: 307996 Creation-Date: 1985-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307996 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307996/files/aer540.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307996 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Miller, Thomas A. Author-Name: Sharples, Jerry A. Author-Name: House, Robert M. Author-Name: Moore, Charles V. Title: Increasing World Grain Market Fluctuations: Implications for U.S. Agriculture Abstract: Domestic and foreign import and export policies which restrict trade, along with increasing variability in exchange rates, are causing increased fluctuations in U.S. grain exports and are making U.S. farmers increasingly uncertain about the prices they can expect and about what they should produce. Farmer uncertainty reduces production, raises prices for consumers, and may accelerate structural changes in the farm sector. These problems may worsen over the next 20 years if other countries further insulate their domestic markets from variations in the world market. As export markets grow in coming decades, U.S. grain policies can be tailored to mitigate such impacts; but the alternatives may also involve undesirable side effects. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 46 Number: 307997 Creation-Date: 1985-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307997 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307997/files/aer541.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307997 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Author-Name: Lawrence, Max Title: Implications of World Sugar Markets, Policies, and Production Costs for U.S. Sugar Abstract: Most of the major sugar producing and exporting countries, including the United States, have adopted national policies to protect domestic producers from the periodic price depressions. U.S. sugar production costs are above both current world sugar prices and the prices at which the major cane sugar exporters can operate profitably. Consequently, the U.S. sugar industry cannot now compete in an open domestic sweetener market without upheaval in its production and processing sectors, unless it receives Government assistance on a continuing basis. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Production Economics Length: 44 Number: 307998 Creation-Date: 1985-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307998 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307998/files/aer543.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307998 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gertel, Karl Title: Differing Effects of Farm Commodity Programs on Land Returns and Land Values Abstract: Excerpt from the Report: This study examines the likely effects of discontinuing farm programs in 1986. Such a change is unlikely. While this study deals with a hypothetical change rather than an actual policy proposal, it illustrates the relative effect of farm commodity programs on returns and value of land producing major commodities. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Land Economics/Use, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 8 Number: 307999 Creation-Date: 1985-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.307999 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/307999/files/aer544.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:307999 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sloggett, Gordon Title: Energy and U.S. Agriculture: Irrigation Pumping, 1974-83 Abstract: U.S. land irrigated with onfarm pumped water increased by 9.5 million acres to 44.5 million acres from 1974 to 1983. Higher energy prices increased energy pumping costs from $551 million to $2.5 billion. Pump irrigators applied energy-saving technologies such as low-pressure center pivots, which alone saved about $72 million in 1983. Favorable economic conditions could lead to 3 to 4 million additional pump-irrigated acres in the water-short Great Plains by the year 2020 and significant increases in the more humid Eastern States. This report, the fourth in a series, updates the 1980 irrigation estimates and focuses on 1983 pump-irrigated farmland, prospects for irrigation, and fuel costs. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 49 Number: 308000 Creation-Date: 1985-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308000 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308000/files/aer545.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308000 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Osteen, Craig Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Title: Potential Bans of Corn and Soybean Pesticides: Economic Implications for Farmers and Consumers Abstract: Removing corn and soybean pesticides with alleged environmental and safety risks from the market could increase U.S. agricultural production costs, crop prices, farm incomes, and consumer expenditures, causing farmers to gain and consumers to lose. Banning all triazines, acetanilides, soil insecticides, or seed treatments would have the largest effects. This report uses an econometric-simulation model, incorporating relatively new developments in welfare economics, to analyze the economic implications of potential bans of corn and soybean insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and herbicides through cost and yield assessments. Banning an individual corn or soybean pesticide would not significantly affect crop production, but banning all pesticides used for an important pest problem would have substantial effects. This study also demonstrates the interdependence among pesticide regulatory decisions. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 28 Number: 308001 Creation-Date: 1986-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308001 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308001/files/aer546.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308001 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Epps, Walter B. Title: Specialty Grocery Wholesaling: Structure and Performance Abstract: Specialty grocery merchants sell more food at wholesale than any other group of wholesale vendors, according to this benchmark study of the industry. The typical specialty grocery merchant is a supplier of perishable foods who runs a low-volume wholesale operation with few employees, handles one product line, supplies particular customers, trades with other wholesale vendors, and offers specialized services. Small specialty establishments predominate, but changes in marketing channels, such as processors selling directly to retail clients, may reduce the demand for services of small specialty merchants. Keywords: Industrial Organization, Labor and Human Capital, Marketing, Productivity Analysis Length: 22 Number: 308002 Creation-Date: 1986-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308002 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308002/files/aer547.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308002 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reimund, Donn A. Author-Name: Brooks, Nora L. Author-Name: Velde, Paul D. Title: The U.S. Farm Sector in the Mid-1980's Abstract: The number of U.S. farms with sales above a quarter million dollars increased by nearly 1½ times over the last decade, but about half the gain was due to inflation. This report presents the dimensions of change in the farm sector for a number of variables (income, wealth, ownership, organization, and concentration of production) adjusted for inflation to document the actual change between 1974 and 1982, It also presents economic profiles of typical farms by region for major commodities. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Consumer/Household Economics, Farm Management, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 52 Number: 308003 Creation-Date: 1986-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308003 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308003/files/aer548.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308003 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Webb, Shwu-Eng H. Author-Name: Ogg, Clayton W. Author-Name: Huang, Wen-Yuan Title: Idling Erodible Cropland: Impacts on Production, Prices, and Government Costs Abstract: A Government program to put erodible land into a conservation reserve would reduce soil erosion and complement the goals of commodity programs by supporting crop prices and reducing Government deficiency and storage payments. To identify erodible and fragile land, this study developed land group criteria that link productivity with potential soil erodibility. About 32 million acres of U.S. cropland were identified as highly erodible and fragile. The study then estimated the impact of idling those acres on production and prices for seven major crops (corn, soybeans, wheat, sorghum, oats, barley, and cotton) under assumptions generally consistent with recent farm legislation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use, Production Economics Length: 39 Number: 308004 Creation-Date: 1986-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308004 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308004/files/aer550.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308004 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Author-Name: Langner, Linda L. Title: Swampbusting: Wetland Conversion and Farm Programs Abstract: Farmers who grow annual crops on converted wetlands, a practice popularly known as swampbusting, will be denied all farm program benefits under the Food Security Act of 1985. Denying price supports to operators converting wetlands can be an effective sanction in some situations, but may be less effective where tax breaks are the main motive for conversion. Although remaining wetlands may be productive if converted, high conversion costs probably make most wetlands unprofitable to convert. Further, the high social value of existing wetlands may outweigh the value of increased agricultural production through conversion, particularly in wetland areas critical for wildlife habitat. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 39 Number: 308005 Creation-Date: 1986-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308005 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308005/files/aer551.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308005 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marra, Michele C. Author-Name: Carlson, Gerald A. Title: Double-Cropping Wheat and Soybeans in the Southeast Abstract: Southeastern farmers have increased their double-cropped wheat and soybean acreage by nearly half since 1970. Double-cropping, the raising of two crops per year in the same field, helps raise producer revenues and reduce total input use, since it encourages conservation tillage by farmers. But double-cropping seems to make soybean yields more variable and has helped to quadruple stockpiles of surplus soft red winter wheat since 1970. This report gives State data for double-cropping and examines the factors that caused the year-to-year expansions and contractions in double-cropped acres since the seventies. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 24 Number: 308006 Creation-Date: 1986-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308006 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308006/files/aer552.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308006 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hexem, Roger W. Author-Name: Boxley, Robert F. Title: Trends In Double Cropping Abstract: U.S. farmers increased double-cropped acreage from 5.8 to 12.4 million acres during 1974-82, from 1.9 percent of all acres harvested in 1974 to nearly 4 percent in 1982. Double cropping was expanding because of rising commodity prices and producers' adoption of advanced technologies in plant varieties and farming practices. Appalachia, the Delta States, and the Southeast showed the sharpest growth in double cropping, partly because growing seasons there are relatively long. Double cropping declined after 1982 because of weak soybean prices. Government-sponsored idling of some wheat acreage that would otherwise have been double cropped, and unfavorable weather in several important double-cropping areas. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management Length: 18 Number: 308007 Creation-Date: 1986-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308007 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308007/files/aer553.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308007 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sloggett, Gordon Author-Name: Dickason, Clifford Title: Ground-Water Mining in the United States Abstract: Ground-water levels are declining from 6 inches to over 5 feet annually beneath 14 million acres of irrigated land in 11 States irrigated mainly by ground water. Pumping costs are rising, and well yields are declining, causing farmers to adjust their irrigation practices. Farmers are adopting new irrigation technologies to improve irrigation efficiency and are changing to crops with lower water requirements in some areas. However, techniques for conserving ground water may not extend the life of aquifers. State and local governments have passed laws severely restricting further irrigation development in about 45 percent of the irrigated area affected by ground-water mining. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 23 Number: 308008 Creation-Date: 1986-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308008 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308008/files/aer555.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308008 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buckley, Katharine C. Author-Name: VanSickle, John J. Author-Name: Bredahl, Maury E. Author-Name: Belibasis, Emil Author-Name: Gutierrez, Nicholas Title: Florida and Mexico Competition for the Winter Fresh Vegetable Market Abstract: Florida eggplant producers had the competitive edge over Mexican producers during the 1984/85 winter season, but the Mexicans had the advantage in supplying U.S. vegetable markets with fresh tomatoes, cucumbers, bell peppers, green beans, and squash. That edge will survive if U.S. prices remain high enough to offset Mexico's high marketing costs and if Florida suffers more damaging frosts. U.S. border fees contribute to Mexico's high costs. Enterprise budgets and weighted average prices are used to assess cost and price advantages of producing six winter fresh vegetables in Florida and the west Mexico state of Sinaloa. Cost and price advantages are used to measure the net competitive advantage of producing each of the vegetables and supplying U.S. markets. Production practices and technological changes are discussed. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Labor and Human Capital, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 108 Number: 308009 Creation-Date: 1986-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308009 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308009/files/aer556.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308009 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Powers, Nicholas J. Author-Name: Zepp, Glenn A. Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Title: Assessment of a Marketing Order Prorate Suspension: A Study of California - Arizona Naval Oranges Abstract: The market for California-Arizona navel oranges performed in about the same way during the 1984/85 season after the handler prorate was suspended as during comparable prorated periods. The industry uses a handler prorate to regulate the weekly quantity of fresh navel oranges shipped to the domestic market by placing an upper limit on the quantity each handler can sell. The prorate was suspended when fresh navel orange prices exceeded parity level during the 1984/85 season. Only minor differences existed between the prorate suspension and prorated periods in the stability of shipments and prices. Higher prices in the 1984/85 season were due to relatively small U.S. fresh orange supplies during the winter. Handler marketing practices changed very little during the partial season with a prorate suspension. The shortrun effects of a full-season prorate suspension would be lower grower prices, greater fresh use, and less processing use of available supplies. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 40 Number: 308010 Creation-Date: 1986-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308010 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308010/files/aer557.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308010 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Somwaru, Agapi Title: Disaggregated Farm Income by Type of Farm, 1959-82 Abstract: Farm production has become more specialized in recent decades, and each type of farm has shown distinct trends in size, number, organization, income, and expenses. Within each type, large-farm numbers have increased at a growing rate but not enough to offset the decline in total farm numbers. These large farms, although a small percentage within each type of farm, have accounted for a growing share of production and expenses. In contrast, small farms have reported small or negative farm income and nonfarm employment as their primary business. Farmers have operated most farms as sole proprietorships. This report presents income, production expenses, and returns by type of farm for 1959-82. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 118 Number: 308011 Creation-Date: 1986-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308011 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308011/files/aer558.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308011 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: An Economic Analysis of USDA Erosion Control Programs: A New Perspective Abstract: Soil conservation programs would be more effective if they focused more on controlling erosion on highly erodible land. Significant effort and funding for current programs are directed to cropland that erodes at less than 5 tons per acre per year. Yet, the benefits of erosion control measures exceed the costs involved only on land eroding at about 15 tons per acre per year and above. More benefits from controlling erosion on cropland are offsite, realized away from the cropland itself, indicating the significance of public benefits from soil conservation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Public Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 76 Number: 308012 Creation-Date: 1986-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308012 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308012/files/aer560.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308012 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc O. Title: Reducing Soil Erosion: Offsite Benefits Abstract: Soil erosion is estimated to cause over $7 billion in damages which occur off the farm (offsite) each year to water-based recreation, navigation, water storage facilities, municipal and industrial water users, water conveyance systems, and from increased flooding. Soil conservation programs which reduce erosion also reduce these offsite damages. This report is the first known attempt at estimating the national offsite benefits from soil conservation. This report examines the offsite damages from erosion at the national and regional levels, establishes a relationship between water-induced erosion and damages, and assesses the offsite benefits from reduced soil erosion. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 29 Number: 308013 Creation-Date: 1986-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308013 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308013/files/aer561.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308013 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gavett, Earle E. Author-Name: Grinnell, Gerald E. Author-Name: Smith, Nancy L. Title: Fuel Ethanol and Agriculture: An Economic Assessment Abstract: Increased fuel ethanol production from renewable resources like grain through 1995 would raise net farm income benefiting mainly corn and livestock producers. Production of additional byproduct feeds would depress prices of soybeans. Large ethanol subsidies, which are required to sustain the industry, would offset any savings in agricultural commodity programs. Increased ethanol production would also raise consumer expenditures for food. Any benefits of higher income to farmers would be more than offset by increased Government costs and consumer food expenditures. Direct cash payments to corn growers would be more economical than attempting to boost farm income through ethanol subsidies. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 61 Number: 308014 Creation-Date: 1986-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308014 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308014/files/aer562.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308014 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ahearn, Mary Title: Financial Well-Being of Farm Operators and Their Households Abstract: Almost a sixth of all U.S. farming households suffered net income losses in 1984 while about a ninth had total incomes of more than $60,000. This disparity in a relatively high income year for the agricultural sector as a whole demonstrates the importance of income distribution in determining the overall financial well-being of farm operators and their households. Most of the average farming household's income earned on the farm came in the form of the rental value of farm dwellings, home consumption of farm-produced food, and wages and benefits operators paid themselves and their households. In 1984, about three-fifths of the total income earned by farming households came from off-farm sources. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics Length: 40 Number: 308015 Creation-Date: 1986-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308015 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308015/files/aer563.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308015 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Embargoes, Surplus Disposal, and U.S. Agriculture Abstract: Embargoes did not cause the farm crisis of the 1980’s and an aggressive export subsidy program to reduce surplus commodity stocks would not have prevented it. The cause more likely rests with radical changes in such worldwide economic conditions as recession, high interest rates, and the value of the dollar. The short-term embargoes of the 1970's implemented to correct short supplies and high prices, stabilized markets and had little lasting effect on trade, prices, and farm income. The longer term 1980 USSR embargo, implemented for foreign policy reasons, barely changed U.S. and world trade levels, but did alter trade flows as the USSR replaced lost U.S. exports from other sources. U.S. policies to protect farmers from the cost of embargo more than offset any immediate damage. A general export subsidy to dispose of stocks would be more expensive than existing programs although farm income would remain basically unchanged and world price variability would increase. If the subsidy's goal was to maximize income minus subsidy costs, targeted subsidies could do so at lower costs than current programs but would be difficult to implement and would not eliminate stocks. If the goal was to eliminate stocks, then targeted subsidies could not improve income sufficiently to offset Government costs Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 534 Number: 308016 Creation-Date: 1986-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308016 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308016/files/aer564.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308016 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lee, Chinkook Author-Name: Schluter, Gerald Author-Name: Edmondson, William Author-Name: Wills, Darryl Title: Measuring the Size of the U.S. Food and Fiber System Abstract: Civilian employment in the food and fiber system fell from over 21 percent of the workforce in 1975 to 18.5 percent in 1985. The system's share of gross national product (GNP) also fell from 20.4 percent in 1975 to 17.5 percent in 1985. The system generated $700.8 billion in GNP and employed 21.4 million full-time workers in 1985. This report reviews procedures used to estimate income and employment in the food and fiber system and their usefulness in economic policy and decisionmaking. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 16 Number: 308025 Creation-Date: 1987-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308025 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308025/files/aer566.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308025 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Petrulis, Mindy Author-Name: Green, Bernal L. Author-Name: Hines, Fred Author-Name: Nolan, Richard Author-Name: Sommer, Judith Title: How Is Farm Financial Stress Affecting Rural America? Abstract: Recent farm financial stress has hit the Midwest the hardest because farming there is specialized and the Midwest's overall economy has not rebounded from the 1980-82 recessions. Though the number of farmers working off the farm is growing nationally, more plentiful nonfarm jobs in the Northeast and South have helped offset farmers' financial stress. Economically diversified and densely settled areas with younger residents have fared best, while heavily farming-dependent areas have fared worst and lost population. This report contains indepth comparisons of rural America's current economic health by region and by reliance on farming. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 26 Number: 308026 Creation-Date: 1987-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308026 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308026/files/aer568.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308026 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Betts, Carolyn Title: Costs of Producing Milk, 1975-84 Abstract: Costs of producing milk rose 53 percent in 1975-84 to $13.57 per hundredweight (cwt). Cash (out-of-pocket) costs rose 56 percent to $10.64 per cwt. Cash receipts, measuring gross production value, peaked in 1981 at $14.94 per cwt compared with $9.23 in 1975. Production costs in the Pacific region were more than $1 per cwt lower than costs in other regions every year during 1975-84. Appalachia and the Corn Belt had the highest costs. In 1983, the Economic Research Service (ERS) revised its cost-of-production estimating procedures and cost-and-return budget formats to incorporate new concepts and methodologies. This report describes those revisions and re-estimates milk production costs for 1975-80 using the new methods and formats to provide comparable estimates for 1975-84. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 39 Number: 308027 Creation-Date: 1987-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308027 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308027/files/aer569.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308027 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brokken, Ray F. Author-Name: McCarl, Bruce A. Title: A Theoretical Evaluation of Fee Systems for Private Grazing on Federal Lands Abstract: The Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service control for regular lease many acres suitable for livestock production. This report uses a theoretical economic framework to review the allocation and pricing of Federal range forage. The authors evaluated fee system alternatives and determined that no system simultaneously satisfied all economic criteria. Maintenance of the current system, a switch to competitive bidding, or an administrative cost-based fee seemed to be the best options. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 82 Number: 308028 Creation-Date: 1987-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308028 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308028/files/aer570.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308028 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Teigen, Lloyd D. Title: Agricultural Parity: Historical Review and Alternative Calculations Abstract: Changes in the structure of agriculture and income distribution among producers make parity prices obsolete indicators of farmer well-being. This report chronicles the history of parity, surveys critiques of parity, and discusses changes that might reduce price distortions resulting from the use of the parity concept. Possible changes include adjusting the parity price formula by redefining base period prices and treating interest and taxes differently. New standards of equity, including cost of production, marginal social cost, and parity income, are examined. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Consumer/Household Economics, Demand and Price Analysis Length: 84 Number: 308029 Creation-Date: 1987-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308029 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308029/files/aer571.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308029 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hexem, Roger W. Author-Name: Krupa, Kenneth S. Title: Land Resources for Crop Production Abstract: About 35 million acres not being cultivated have high potential for crop use and 117 million more have medium potential, according to the 1982 National Resources Inventory (NRI) conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Converted high potential land would increase cropland area by 8 percent over the 421 million cropland acres inventoried in 1982. The cropland base would increase 36 percent if both high and medium potential land were converted, but soil erosion could increase by just over 1 billion tons annually, nearly 20 percent above 1982. If only high potential lands were converted, the erosion increase could be only about 4 percent. Less favorable cost/price relationships for crop production since 1982, several provisions in the 1985 farm act, and change in the U.S. tax code will all tend to discourage conversions. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 30 Number: 308030 Creation-Date: 1987-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308030 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308030/files/aer572.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308030 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden Title: Developing an Integrated Information System for the Food Sector Abstract: An information system for the food sector which integrates measures of prices, quantities, and values provides more information about many developments in the food sector than a system that separately measures prices, quantities, or values. The author has developed such an integrated information system. His system allows greater understanding of the sources of food, outlets, food purchasers, and productivity in food marketing. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 84 Number: 308031 Creation-Date: 1987-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308031 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308031/files/aer575.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308031 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nielsen, Elizabeth G. Author-Name: Lee, Linda K. Title: The Magnitude and Costs of Groundwater Contamination from Agricultural Chemicals: A National Perspective Abstract: The drinking water of an estimated 50 million people in the United States comes from groundwater that is potentially contaminated from agricultural chemicals. Approximately 19 million of these people get their water from private wells, which are most vulnerable. Findings (based on analysis of synthesized data sources) suggest that potential contamination follows regional trends. Evidence indicates that pesticides and nitrates from fertilizers do not necessarily occur together in potentially affected areas, implying a need to target strategies. First-time monitoring costs range from $0.9 billion to $2.2 billion for households with private wells (mostly in rural areas) and approximate $14 million for communities with community groundwater systems. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Health Economics and Policy, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 43 Number: 308032 Creation-Date: 1987-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308032 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308032/files/aer576.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308032 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ash, Mark S. Author-Name: Lin, William Title: Regional Crop Yield Response for U.S. Grains Abstract: Crop yields in all major production regions increase substantially in response to three major long-term stimuli: improved varieties, improved farming techniques, and more fertilizer. Short-term factors affecting yields include soil moisture, temperature and precipitation during the critical months of crop production, and acreage reduction programs. This report examines how the acreage reduction programs affect crop yields, what determines yields, and how to project crop yields. Per acre yields of wheat, corn, and rice by major region are projected to 1990. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 48 Number: 308033 Creation-Date: 1987-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308033 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308033/files/aer577.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308033 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: Corporate Farming, 1969-82 Abstract: The number of incorporated farms in the United States rose by 178 percent in 1969-82. Most of the increase, 140 percent, occurred between 1969 and 1978. Tax advantages in the 1970's provided the chief impetus for farmers to incorporate: corporate tax rates declined while individual tax rates rose, mainly because of inflation. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 and liberalized estate tax laws have reduced the incentives for incorporating, however. Despite the increase in farm corporations, most farms remain sole proprietorships and most incorporated farms are family ones. Nonfamily corporations accounted for only 11 percent of the 59,792 farm corporations in 1982. Vertical integration and contract production appear to be increasing. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Farm Management Length: 29 Number: 308034 Creation-Date: 1987-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308034 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308034/files/aer578.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308034 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fallert, Richard Author-Name: McGuckin, Tom Author-Name: Betts, Carolyn Author-Name: Bruner, Gary Title: bST and the Dairy Industry: A National, Regional, and Farm-Level Analysis Abstract: Cows produce more milk at less cost when injected with bovine Somatotropin (bST), a protein occurring naturally in cattle. Advances in biotechnology now make it possible to produce synthetic bST at commercially attractive prices. Dairy farmers are likely to use synthetic bST since early adopters will realize significantly higher returns and other operators will eventually have to adopt to compete. But the effects of bST on the dairy industry are likely to be less dramatic than often suggested. Since bST will be available to all operators and little additional capital or operational changes are required, bST use should reinforce, but not fundamentally change, structural trends already underway. One such trend is toward fewer but larger dairy farms. Savings in production costs will eventually be offset by the declines in milk prices generated by larger supplies, if Government support programs allow prices to drop enough to balance production and commercial use. Hence, the effects of bST will largely depend on the flexibility of the price support program. An inflexible program with high supports could mean large Government outlays and accumulating surpluses. bST would have little effect on the U.S. position in the world dairy market under current trade policy. Under more liberal trade policies, U.S. competitiveness could suffer if bST were adopted abroad but not here. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 118 Number: 308035 Creation-Date: 1987-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308035 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308035/files/aer579.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308035 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dvoskin, Dan Title: Excess Capacity in U.S. Agriculture: An Economic Approach to Measurement Abstract: This report measures excess capacity in U.S. agriculture, which is defined as the difference between potential supply of farm output (actual production plus potential output from acreage reduction programs) and commercial demand (total use adjusted for noncommercial exports) at prevailing prices. The study method enables analysts to assess and estimate excess capacity since 1940. Excess agricultural capacity has been increasing since 1979. The value of excess capacity in 1986 ($12.5 billion) exceeded the previous peak in the sixties, the result of greater agricultural output and a sharp decline in agricultural exports after 1981. Keywords: Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 29 Number: 308036 Creation-Date: 1988-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308036 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308036/files/aer580.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308036 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hanthorn, Michael. Author-Name: Glauber, Joseph W. Title: An Assessment of Marketing Loan Program Options Abstract: The Secretary of Agriculture did not implement marketing loans for 1987 crops of wheat, feed grains, and soybeans. Marketing loans were not implemented for wheat and feed grains because other less costly policy tools are lowering domestic prices as much as marketing loans could. For soybeans, if world prices were significantly below U.S. prices, a marketing loan could lower domestic prices, but at a substantial cost. The demand response to marketing loans for these crops would be small in the short run. Implementation of marketing loans for rice and upland cotton has allowed the United States to regain the share of world trade for these commodities during the 1986/87 marketing year that it enjoyed in the early 1980's. But CCC outlays for rice and upland cotton associated with marketing loans are estimated to have exceeded $635 million. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 40 Number: 308037 Creation-Date: 1987-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308037 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308037/files/aer581.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308037 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crowder, Bradley Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Title: Managing Farm Nutrients: Tradeoffs for Surface- and Ground-Water Quality Abstract: Comprehensive soil and nutrient management on the farm can reduce water pollution. Matching the amount and timing of nutrient applications to the needs of crops is the most cost-effective and efficient way to control nutrient contamination of surface and ground water. Soil conservation practices reduce surface-water pollution, but can increase nitrate leaching through the soil. Misdirected practices, such as excessive or mistimed manure applications, can increase nutrient contamination of surface and ground water. This report uses a field-scale computer simulation model, CREAMS (Chemicals, Runoff, and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems), to assess pollutant losses from agricultural land to water. A central theme of the analysis is the tradeoff between nutrient loadings in surface water versus ground water. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Farm Management, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 26 Number: 308038 Creation-Date: 1988-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308038 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308038/files/aer583.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308038 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Clauson, Annette L. Author-Name: Hoff, Frederic L. Title: Structural and Financial Characteristics of U.S. Sugar Beet Farms Abstract: Sugar beet farmers’ 1984 average of $12,810 in total cash income was substantially below the $22,918 for all U.S. farms, primarily because sugar beet farmers received only $2,524 in nonfarm income compared with $16,054 for all U.S. farms. Because sugar beets are a high-value crop, more than 20 percent of all sugar beet producers had farm sales of $250,000 or more, compared with only 6 percent of all U.S. farms. Sugar beet farms tend to be more indebted than most farms, but the sugar beet farms' average net worth, $281,547, Is slightly higher than the U.S. average, $251,845. Most production is concentrated In three regions: Minnesota and eastern North Dakota (35.2 percent of all production); California (18.8 percent); and Colorado, Nebraska, and southeastern Wyoming (12.8 percent). Sugar beets tend to be produced on farms which also produce livestock, mostly cattle, or other cash crops, mostly wheat, corn, barley, or soybeans. This report analyzes production and financial characteristics of sugar beet producers in seven regions. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Production Economics Length: 65 Number: 308039 Creation-Date: 1988-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308039 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308039/files/aer584.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308039 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: LeBlanc, Michael Author-Name: Reilly, John Title: Ethanol: Economic and Policy Tradeoffs Abstract: Federally supported ethanol use is one alternative for meeting environmental, energy security, and agricultural objectives. Additional expansion of the industry depends on a continuation of current favorable conditions, including extension of the Federal gasoline tax exemption. Under current conditions, ethanol should be able to compete with other additives as an octane enhancer. Expansion of the ethanol industry would increase ethanol's contribution to improving energy security, reducing air quality problems associated with carbon monoxide, and increasing corn prices. The report provides a basis for assessing the tradeoffs in using ethanol to meet national objectives. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 58 Number: 308040 Creation-Date: 1988-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308040 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308040/files/aer585.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308040 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Haidacher, Richard C. Author-Name: Blaylock, James R. Author-Name: Myers, Lester H. Title: Consumer Demand for Dairy Products Abstract: Rising consumer incomes and declining prices for dairy products relative to other foods caused most of the 2-percent average annual increase in per capita consumption posted from 1983 through 1986. Advertising, concern about health and nutrition, changes in demographics, and Government donations also affected consumption. But these influences were small for most dairy products, compared with the effects of changes in relative prices and consumer incomes. With the exception of cheese and lowfat milk, per capita consumption of dairy products in the United States either trended downward or stagnated for the two decades prior to the early 1980’s. Per capita consumption turned up, however, in the early 1980’s. Consumption of items such as lowfat milk and cheese showed further gains, and consumption of most other dairy products bottomed out or increased modestly. This report examines dairy market characteristics, the product composition of 1983-86 consumption increases, price and income effects on demand, and other factors affecting demand Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 83 Number: 308041 Creation-Date: 1988-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308041 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308041/files/aer586.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308041 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Osteen, Craig Author-Name: Suguiyama, Luis Title: Losing Chlordimeform Use in Cotton Production: Its Effects on the Economy and Pest Resistance Abstract: U.S. consumers and producers could annually lose $148 million once chlordimeform, a cotton insecticide, is removed from the market. The action could accelerate the resistance of the bollworm and tobacco budworm to pyrethroids (a group of important cotton insecticides often used in conjunction with chlordimeform). If so, the U.S. consumer and producer loss could annually rise to $832 million. Pest damage would reduce cotton yields. Available alternative insect control measures, which are less effective and more expensive than chlordimeform and pyrethroids, would raise production costs. Reduced cotton production and acreage would raise cotton prices. So, some cotton producers would gain, while cotton consumers would lose. However, more corn, sorghum, and soybeans would be planted in place of cotton, lowering prices for those commodities. Thus, consumers of those commodities would gain, while producers would lose. If more effective alternatives to chlordimeform and pyrethroids became available, the economic effects of the removal would decline. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 34 Number: 308042 Creation-Date: 1988-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308042 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308042/files/aer587.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308042 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Negri, Donald H. Author-Name: Moore, Michael R. Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Author-Name: Schluntz, Larry J. Author-Name: Porter, Dick L. Author-Name: Willhite, Ronald M. Title: Surplus Crop Production and the Small Reclamation Projects Act Abstract: The U.S. Department of the Interior's Small Reclamation Projects Act (SRPA) program, by providing aid to improve existing irrigation systems, can increase irrigated acreage and crop production. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's commodity programs concurrently use target prices and acreage restrictions to cut production of surplus crops, namely corn, sorghum, oats, barley, wheat, rice, and upland cotton. This report reviews the links between SRPA loans and surplus crop production, and associated commodity program costs. The apparent conflict between the two programs is minor. A small percentage of USDA commodity program expenditures can be attributed to SRPA loans, and SRPA acres produce a small portion of USDA surplus crops. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use Length: 26 Number: 308043 Creation-Date: 1988-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308043 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308043/files/aer592.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308043 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hanchar, John J. Title: Characteristics of Irrigated Agriculture in the United States Abstract: Previously unreported data obtained from special tabulations of the 1982 Census of Agriculture show that more than 30 percent of irrigated farms were livestock operations in 1982. Individual or family operations represented the vast majority of irrigated farms. Thirty-six percent of irrigated farms had fewer than 50 acres, while 34 percent generated less than $10,000 per farm in sales of agricultural products. Corporate and larger farms accounted for disproportionately large shares of the irrigated acreage and sales of agricultural products, compared with their share of farms. Although there were regional differences in farm operations, farm operator characteristics were similar among regions. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 33 Number: 308044 Creation-Date: 1988-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308044 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308044/files/aer593.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308044 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glauber, Joseph W. Title: Generic Certificates Abstract: The Food Security Act of 1985 authorizes the U.S. Department of Agriculture to issue generic certificates in lieu of cash payments due program participants and merchants of agricultural products under provisions of several programs. The certificates can be used to acquire stocks held as collateral on Government loans or owned by the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC). Certificates offer producers and merchants advantages in exchanging them for crops held under loan or owned by the CCC, and their use has freed-up stocks which might not have been marketed. While the costs of using certificates likely exceeded the costs of issuing those payments in cash during fiscal year 1987, costs for FY 1988 and FY 1989 are estimated to be about the same as had the payments been made in cash. As of March 31,1988, about $17.9 billion of certificates had been issued since April 1986. Total certificate redemptions as of May 31,1988, approached $17.1 billion. Approximately 72 percent of the exchanges have been for corn ($12.4 billion), 20 percent for wheat ($3.3 billion), and the remainder for various other commodities held under loan or owned by the CCC. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 23 Number: 308046 Creation-Date: 1988-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308046 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308046/files/aer594.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308046 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Author-Name: Hyberg, Brent T. Author-Name: Price, J. Michael Author-Name: Huang, Wen-Yuan Author-Name: Lee, Chinkook Author-Name: Sharples, Jerry L. Author-Name: Dvoskin, Dan Title: Economic Effects of Mandatory Production Controls Abstract: Mandatory restrictions on agricultural production continue to be advocated as an alternative policy for increasing farm income while reducing farm program costs. Although farm income might rise in the short run, such programs would be costly to consumers and possibly to the Federal Treasury. An export subsidy would be needed to maintain current agricultural export levels if a mandatory production control program were used to raise prices. The cost of such a subsidy could exceed savings from eliminating Government income support programs. The program would affect agribusinesses by reducing the need for farm supplies and by reducing the amount of product handled beyond the farm gate. More generally, programs that idle productive resources to maintain higher prices may lead to production inefficiencies and to capitalization of program benefits that are captured by current landowners. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 33 Number: 308047 Creation-Date: 1989-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308047 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308047/files/aer595.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308047 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Beilock, Richard Author-Name: MacDonald, James Author-Name: Powers, Nicholas Title: An Analysis of Produce Transportation: A Florida Case Study Abstract: Truck transportation rates, which constitute nearly one-third of the price retailers pay for produce delivered to their door, were found to be most influenced by seasonal changes in volume, commodity value and perishability, destination, distance, and trailer size. This report, based mainly on a survey collected from carriers hauling produce out of Florida to national markets, looks at the structure and characteristics of Florida's produce shipping system. Florida, as the Nation's number two produce supplier, is an important enough supplier that findings probably also apply to other major U.S. produce transport systems. Data presented in this report fill an information void because regulatory agencies no longer collect trucking industry statistics. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization, Marketing Length: 50 Number: 308048 Creation-Date: 1988-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308048 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308048/files/aer597.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308048 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McDowell, Howard Author-Name: Fleming, Ann M. Author-Name: Fallert, Richard F. Title: Federal Milk Marketing Orders: An Analysis of Alternative Policies Abstract: Milk prices received by producers and paid by processors vary by region under the current system of Federal milk marketing orders. Yet, the system ensures sufficient milk supplies to consumers and provides economic stability to producers. The system could be modified so that it is more competitive and so that it increases economic efficiency while maintaining market stability and reducing risk. Such a system could reduce overall producer revenues and affect dairy product manufacturing, but it could also redistribute those revenues among regions, provide savings to consumers, reduce Government purchases of dairy products, generate more efficient shipping patterns, and reduce interregional marketing costs. This study focuses on four such modifications at two levels of dairy price supports: (1) removing the pricing practices that discourage reconstituting dairy products for fluid use, (2) establishing a single nationwide milk marketing order, as opposed to the numerous orders of the current system, (3) eliminating the classified pricing system, which increases the price of milk used in fluid (beverage) milk products, and (4) pricing Grade A milk for fluid use from multiple price-basing points rather than from the current single price-basing point in central Wisconsin. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 70 Number: 308061 Creation-Date: 1988-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308061 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308061/files/aer598.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308061 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Suguiyama, Luis Author-Name: Osteen, Craig Title: The Economic Importance of Cotton Insects and Mites Abstract: Insects and mites cost cotton producers $645 million a year in yield losses and control costs (direct damage) during 1981-84, over half of which went for chemical controls. Bollworms and tobacco budworms caused the most ($216 million) in direct damage. But the total economic cost of cotton insects and mites may approach $1.3 billion after considering changes in cotton production, prices, processing, and use of other commodities. Extensive chemical use to control insects and mites potentially adds to the cost because, if not properly applied, the treatments may harm farmworkers and the environment. This report uses expert opinions and a model that simulates the absence of direct damage to estimate cotton yield losses, control costs, and the potential hazards of chemically controlling these cotton pests. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 39 Number: 308062 Creation-Date: 1988-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308062 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308062/files/aer599.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308062 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Clauson, Annette L. Title: Characteristics of Burley Tobacco Farms Abstract: Burley tobacco farms surveyed produced an average of 2.3 acres of tobacco in 1984, the most recent data available, on an average of 122 acres of farmland operated. A labor-intensive crop, burley tobacco (a cigarette tobacco) required an average of 240 hours of labor per acre or 13 hours per 100 pounds to produce the 1984 crop. Most farms relied on nonfarm sources to supplement their income. Net worth for burley tobacco producers averaged $130,715 in 1984, substantially below the $322,732 for all U.S. farm producers. Their average farm debt was about a third less than for all U.S. farm producers. The data analyzed in this report are from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1984 Farm Costs and Returns Survey. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics Length: 26 Number: 308063 Creation-Date: 1988-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308063 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308063/files/aer600.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308063 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nielsen, Elizabeth G. Author-Name: Miranowski, John A. Author-Name: Morehart, Mitchell J Title: Investments in Soil Conservation and Land Improvements: Factors Explaining Farmers' Decisions Abstract: Expected income and real interest rates are among economic factors that influence farmers' decisions to invest in land improvements, including soil conservation, drainage, and land clearing. Programs that remove land from production, higher farmland prices relative to land improvement costs. Government cost-sharing of conservation expenditures, and specific land characteristics (such as slope) also encourage investments in conservation and other improvements. This study is the first to use national data to examine the role of economic and related factors in explaining farmers' investments in conservation and other land improvement projects. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Farm Management, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 41 Number: 308064 Creation-Date: 1989-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308064 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308064/files/aer601.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308064 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Barse, Joseph R. Author-Name: Ferguson, Walter Author-Name: Seem, Robert Title: Economic Effects of Banning Soil Fumigants Abstract: Producers who formerly used fumigants to control soil-borne pests would be worse off by $100-$200 million per year, despite higher prices, if soil fumigants were banned for citrus fruit, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and a few other crops, because crop output would decline sharply. Producers who did not use fumigants would be better off by $480-$800 million per year because of higher product prices received. Consumers would pay $3.0-$5.1 billion more annually in the short run. Average annual consumer prices would rise 53 percent for fresh tomatoes, 11 percent for potatoes, a percent for canned tomatoes, and 4 percent for cigarettes. Loss of fumigants would have no effect on prices of cotton products, citrus fruit, or frozen juice. This report estimates the economic effects on producers and consumers of certain crops if the use of all soil fumigants were lost because of EPA cancellation, suspension, or manufacturer withdrawal. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 39 Number: 308065 Creation-Date: 1988-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308065 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308065/files/aer602.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308065 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hiemstra, Stephen W. Author-Name: Koenig, Steven R. Author-Name: Freshwater, David Title: Prospects for a Secondary Market for Farm Mortgages Abstract: The success of a secondary market for farm mortgages depends on the underwriting standards adopted by the recently created Federal Agricultural Mortgage Corporation (Farmer Mac) and active participation of Farm Credit System (FCS) lenders. Development of underwriting standards and other administrative requirements in both the public and private sectors is likely to delay the initiation of market operations until late 1989. Tight underwriting standards and less than full participation of the FCS could delay active trading for several years after market operations begin. A secondary market is a financial market in which lenders sell mortgages to poolers who, in turn, market securities backed by those mortgages to investors. Loan sales allow lenders to recover most of the loan principal. Borrowers who meet Farmer Mac underwriting standards may therefore be able to get loans even when the supply of loanable funds is otherwise constrained. When loanable funds are more accessible, secondary market sales will increase competition among lenders and lower interest rates. Borrowers who do not meet Farmer Mac standards may either have to rely increasingly on Government credit programs or pay more for credit. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance Length: 59 Number: 308066 Creation-Date: 1988-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308066 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308066/files/aer603.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308066 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Title: Productivity and Erodibility of U.S. Cropland Abstract: Soil erosion policy aiming to remove highly erodible land from production to reduce soil erosion may be dealing with some of the most productive and valuable U.S. cropland. If so, greater incentives for farmers to retire that land may be needed. The land capability classification system and USDA's prime farmland definition, used to measure the suitability of land for agricultural uses, do not provide enough information for decisions on whether highly erodible soils are less or more productive than less erodible soils. As a result, some highly erodible lands that are also highly productive may have higher opportunity costs than commonly thought and thus may need greater incentives for retirement. Opportunity costs measure the earning power of an input, soil in this case, in its best alternative use. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Production Economics Length: 23 Number: 308067 Creation-Date: 1989-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308067 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308067/files/aer604.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308067 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duewer, Lawrence A. Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Author-Name: Crawford, Terry L. Title: Effects of Meat Imports on the Puerto Rican Livestock-Meat Industry Abstract: Puerto Rico imports more beef, relative to local production and population, than does the U.S. mainland. Imports of foreign beef, especially from Central America, tend to depress Puerto Rican beef prices and, in turn, production. The lean Puerto Rican beef, unlike beef from the States, directly competes with Central American meat. Small-scale production and marketing, high land values from population pressure, and easy access to low-cost Central American meat hurt the Puerto Rican producers' competitive position. Curtailing imports under a simulated model significantly boosts Puerto Rican beef prices, production, and consultation, but such restrictions may violate U.S. trade agreements. This report describes Puerto Rico's beef industry, especially the effects of beef imports on Puerto Rican producers Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing Length: 56 Number: 308068 Creation-Date: 1989-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308068 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308068/files/aer605.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308068 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc O. Title: Water Quality Benefits from the Conservation Reserve Program Abstract: The Conservation Reserve Program, a land retirement program designed to remove from production 40 to 45 million acres of highly erodible cropland, may generate an estimated $3.5 to $4 billion in water quality benefits. Potential benefits include lower water treatment costs, lower sediment removal costs, less flood damage, less damage to equipment which uses water, and increased recreational fishing. Benefits were estimated with a set of procedures that approximated the physical, chemical, biological, and economic links between soil erosion and water use. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 35 Number: 308069 Creation-Date: 1989-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308069 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308069/files/aer606.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308069 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kane, Sally M. Author-Name: Reilly, John M. Title: Economics of Ethanol Production in the United States Abstract: Expansion of the U.S. ethanol industry hinges largely on extension of the Federal fuel excise tax exemption and corn prices. For ethanol to be competitive in the 1990's without the Federal subsidy, crude oil prices would have to increase substantially. This report examines production costs and the relative competitiveness of the ethanol industry. The report evaluates structural characteristics of the industry, including economies of scale and the relative economics of the two primary manufacturers, wet- and dry-mill plants. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 25 Number: 308070 Creation-Date: 1989-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308070 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308070/files/aer607.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308070 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: McClelland, John Title: Issues Raised by New Agricultural Technologies: Livestock Growth Hormones Abstract: Consumers should benefit from the new livestock growth hormone technology in terms of slightly lower prices in the long run. Rapid and widespread adoption of growth hormones may affect many markets, but the effects are generally small even in the short run. Only under extremely optimistic conditions would government commodity program outlays be reduced in the long run. Most other longrun effects are indistinguishable from normal year-to-year changes. Hormone use will encourage structural trends already underway in the livestock industries, namely specialization and fewer but larger farms. This study looks at the extent of possible changes brought about by 100-percent adoption of growth hormones. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade, Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 42 Number: 308071 Creation-Date: 1989-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308071 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308071/files/aer608.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308071 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Schaible, Glenn D. Title: Irrigated Acreage in the Conservation Reserve Program Abstract: Marginal irrigated acreage enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) through 1987 represent less than 2 percent of the 23 million acres enrolled nationwide. Marginal irrigated acreage is irrigated land that results in low net returns because of high energy costs (due to high pump lifts and/or low pump capacities) or low productivity. Most of the enrolled irrigated acreage is in 17 Western States, with 68 percent of it in Nebraska and Texas. This report identifies the extent of marginal irrigated acreage enrolled in the CRP through 1987 and the potential enrollment in the CRP under two rates of enrollment, the historical and half the historical rate. This report also examines why producers would enroll irrigated land in the CRP and estimates cost savings and other benefits to remaining irrigators in Nebraska and Texas over a 40-year period. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 25 Number: 308072 Creation-Date: 1989-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308072 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308072/files/aer610.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308072 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jayne, Thomas S. Author-Name: Day, John C. Author-Name: Dregne, Harold E. Title: Technology and Agricultural Productivity in the Sahel Abstract: Increased agricultural productivity in the Sahel will require widespread diffusion of improved soil- and water-management practices that stimulate growth in a sustainable way. Techniques such as tied-ridges, animal traction, and fertilization can improve productivity but may not be viable unless used together. Improved soil and water management is required to produce a more fertile agronomic environment receptive to new high-yielding crop varieties needed to greatly expand productivity. However, environmental conditions, farmers' resources, inability to make complementary investments that would make such practices profitable, marketing channels, and institutional/policy arrangements constrain adoption of these techniques. Adoption rates can improve if new farming practices enhance soil and water conditions at modest cost, reduce the risk of food and capital loss during poor weather years, and relieve seasonal labor constraints. However, tandem improvements are necessary in input and product markets, rural institutions, and policies to stimulate adoption by creating opportunities and incentives at the farm level. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Development, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 34 Number: 308073 Creation-Date: 1989-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308073 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308073/files/aer612.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308073 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Data for Food Demand Analysis: Availability, Characteristics, Options Abstract: Demand analysts often devote less attention to selecting data series than econometric techniques, although data are equally important to the results. This report discusses the availability, characteristics, and derivation of time series for food consumption, food prices, food expenditures, and income for use in food demand analysis. It also shows how new series, which will provide consistent measures of quantity and price, can be constructed from available data. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 46 Number: 308074 Creation-Date: 1990-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308074 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308074/files/aer613.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308074 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sutton, John D. Title: Resource Policy Subsidies and the GATT Negotiations Abstract: Domestic resource policies, such as below-market price irrigation water and conservation acreage retirement, may be important to the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) negotiations when they are, in effect, subsidies that can affect production and trade. This report looks at both explicit and implicit producer subsidies in overall terms and with respect to specific policies of major trading countries. Two guidelines are presented that might be used to determine whether resource policies distort trade. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 25 Number: 308075 Creation-Date: 1989-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308075 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308075/files/aer616.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308075 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reining, Robert C. Title: Structural Change in U.S. Farmland Abstract: Large farms are controlling a significantly larger share of farm sales and land. Large farms have acquired more resources and captured the higher sales primarily because they quickly responded to price changes by altering the mix of land use and by using land rental arrangements instead of buying or selling property. This report examines changes in the distribution of land, sales, and tenure among farms. Changes are put into a consistent perspective by adjusting farm sales classes to correct for the substantial inflation during 1969-82. Keywords: Farm Management, Land Economics/Use Length: 24 Number: 308076 Creation-Date: 1990-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308076 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308076/files/aer617.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308076 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ogg, Clayton W. Author-Name: Aillery, Marcel P. Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc O. Title: Implementing the Conservation Reserve Program: Analysis of Environmental Options Abstract: Benefits would be mixed if the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) were expanded to include irrigated land, highly erodible land, and cropped wetlands, which contribute to environmental problems. This report examines the following options for implementing environmental provisions of the CRP: -- Irrigated land. Enrollment costs for this acreage are high since irrigation is profitable in many areas. Net environmental benefits would not likely increase. -- Erodible land in watersheds with pollution problems. Water quality could benefit considerably by targeting selected watersheds. Targeting modest acreages of buffer strips near streams would increase benefits even more. -- Cropped wetlands. Wildlife habitat would improve by restoring up to 6 million acres to wetlands. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use Length: 33 Number: 308077 Creation-Date: 1989-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308077 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308077/files/aer618.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308077 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Author-Name: Brooks, Douglas H. Title: Metropolitan Growth and Agriculture: Farming in the City's Shadow Abstract: Farmland acreage in metropolitan counties rose by nearly half between 1974 and 1982 as metropolitan areas were redefined and additional counties were designated as metro. Metro farms are generally smaller, more land intensive in their production, more diverse, and more focused on high-value production than farms elsewhere. As of 1982, metro farms accounted for 29 percent of the U.S. total, 30 percent of total U.S. farm sales, and 16 percent of U.S. cropland. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use, Productivity Analysis Length: 26 Number: 308078 Creation-Date: 1989-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308078 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308078/files/aer619.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308078 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Economic Research Service Title: Agricultural-Food Policy Review: U.S. Agricultural Policies in a Changing World Abstract: This review brings together background information for assessing today's agricultural sector and the programs of the Food Security Act of 1985 and for looking to the future for new agricultural, environmental, and rural development issues. This information sets the stage for debating omnibus agricultural and rural development legislation to take effect when the 1985 Act expires in 1990. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy Length: 391 Number: 308079 Creation-Date: 1989-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308079 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308079/files/aer620.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308079 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Carlson, Gerald A. Author-Name: Sappie, Glen Author-Name: Hammig, Michael Title: Economic Returns to Boll Weevil Eradication Abstract: A cotton boll weevil eradication program in North and South Carolina during 1978-87 achieved a very high rate of return, mainly from increased yields, lower pesticide spending, and added value of cotton land. This study evaluates economic returns of a pest control program encompassing a large geographical area and the joint efforts of farmers and public agencies, in contrast to pest control efforts by individuals, which can be less successful. The eradication program yielded an annual rate of return of 187 percent for farmers; 97 percent when all public costs are included. Fewer applications of pesticides following eradication also benefit the environment. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 35 Number: 308080 Creation-Date: 1989-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308080 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308080/files/aer621.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308080 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Osteen, Craig D. Author-Name: Szmedra, Philip I. Title: Agricultural Pesticide Use Trends and Policy Issues Abstract: Pesticides used on major crops increased from 225 million pounds of active ingredient (the material in a pesticide product that controls pests) in 1964 to 558 million pounds in 1982. Rapid growth in the use of herbicides led that dramatic increase. Farmers increased their use of pesticides on corn and soybeans to a greater extent than on other crops during that period. Insecticide use on cotton fell, probably because the pyrethroid insecticides, which are applied at low rates, were introduced in the late 1970's. Since 1980, pesticide use has stabilized or declined. Regulatory decisions that removed pesticides from the market if health or environmental risks outweighed the economic benefits may have reduced the variety of pesticides available to farmers. But, those decisions apparently have not slowed the growth of pesticide use Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Environmental Economics and Policy Length: 93 Number: 308081 Creation-Date: 1989-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308081 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308081/files/aer622.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308081 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nelson, Kenneth E. Author-Name: Duewer, Lawrence A. Author-Name: Crawford, Terry L. Title: Reevaluation of the Beef Carcass-To-Retail Weight Conversion Factor Abstract: Reevaluation of the conversion factor used for changing beef carcass weight data to retail weight shows that the figure used since 1962 (0.74) was accurate through 1985. This report develops a new method for evaluating the conversion factor, and recommends that the factor be recalculated each year to account for changes such as leaner cattle, closer trimming of fat, and more removal of bone. Based on this new method, the conversion factor changed for 1986 (to 0.73), for 1987 (to 0.71), and for 1988 (to 0.705). The 1988 factor means that 70.5 percent of the original carcass is available for retailing. The conversion factor is the portion of the beef carcass purchased by consumers. The revised factor for 1988 represents about 3 1/2 pounds less beef per capita purchased than if 0.74 were still being used. Keywords: Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 42 Number: 308082 Creation-Date: 1989 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308082 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308082/files/aer623.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308082 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bentley, Susan E. Author-Name: et al. (+10) Title: Involuntary Exits from Farming: Evidence from Four Studies Abstract: In this report… The consequences of leaving farming because of financial problems varied, according to case studies of farm exit in southwestern Wisconsin, Texas, North Dakota, and Dodge County, Georgia, in the early 1980's. On average, farmers who were forced out under financial stress had significantly higher household incomes after exit than those earned from farming. Many former farm operators still own their farmland, although remaining debt loads and tax liabilities are sobering. Nearly all found other jobs and most remained in their home counties. Farm loss was spread broadly among diverse sizes and types of farms in the four studies. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Farm Management, Financial Economics, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 15 Number: 308083 Creation-Date: 1989-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308083 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308083/files/aer625.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308083 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Young, C. Edwin Author-Name: Osborn, C. Tim Title: The Conservation Reserve Program: An Economic Assessment Abstract: The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) will boost net farm income and improve environmental quality over the life of the program (1986-99). These gains will come at the cost of somewhat higher food prices and Government administrative expenses, and potential downturns in farm input industries and other local economic activity tied to farming where enrollment is heavy. The authors estimated the net economic benefits of the program to range between $3.4 billion and $11.0 billion in present value, based on the effects covered in this report. Any estimate of the net Government expense of the CRP is highly dependent upon projected commodity market conditions and assumed levels of the acreage reduction program in the absence of the CRP. Prior to the 1988 drought, the authors estimated a small net Government expense. A more recent estimate made after the 1988 drought and with higher assumed acreage reduction levels in the absence of the CRP resulted in a significantly higher net Government expense. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use, Public Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 41 Number: 308084 Creation-Date: 1990-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308084 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308084/files/aer626.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308084 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ribaudo, Marc O. Author-Name: Colacicco, Daniel Author-Name: Langner, Linda L. Author-Name: Piper, Steven Author-Name: Schaible, Glenn D. Title: Natural Resources and Users Benefit from the Conservation Reserve Program Abstract: The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) may generate $6-$14 billion (present value) in benefits to natural resources if 45 million acres of highly erodible or environmentally sensitive cropland are removed from agricultural production by 1990. Protecting the soil by retiring and planting permanent grasses and trees on such land for 10 years will improve soil productivity, water quality, air quality, wildlife habitat, and groundwater supply. But the magnitude and distribution of benefits can be altered by changing the emphasis of the program. This report estimates how retiring cropland benefits natural resources under three scenarios of CRP enrollment. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Environmental Economics and Policy, Land Economics/Use, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 54 Number: 308085 Creation-Date: 1990-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308085 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308085/files/aer627.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308085 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heifner, Richard G. Author-Name: Wright, Bruce H. Title: Potentials for Substituting Farmers' Use of Futures and Options for Farm Programs Abstract: By using commodity futures, options, or cash forward contracts, farmers can broaden their pricing alternatives and partly protect themselves against price declines within a given year, but they cannot effectively stabilize their incomes across years. Each of these types of contracts sets a price or a price limit for a commodity to be delivered at a later date; futures and options contracts are standardized and traded on exchanges; a commodity option gives the holder the right to buy or sell a futures contract at a specified price during a designated time interval. Government programs to expand use of such contracts by farmers generally would not raise or stabilize market prices or farmers' incomes unless subsidies were involved. Such subsidies would be difficult to administer and offer few advantages over conventional farm programs. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Marketing, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 85 Number: 308136 Creation-Date: 1989-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308136 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308136/files/aer628.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308136 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Powers, Nicholas J. Title: Federal Marketing Orders for Fruits, Vegetables, Nuts, and Specialty Crops Abstract: Many marketing orders have regulations for funding promotion and research and establishing package, container, grade, and size requirements. The intent of these regulations is to increase sales by increasing buyer awareness of the product, developing more desirable products, and reducing marketing costs. A few marketing orders control the volume of produce entering certain markets and are intended to even out supplies and prices over time. These regulations can restrict sales of high-quality produce to the fresh-use market and boost farm prices for a given quantity. However, production increases stimulated by the higher prices subsequently reduce them. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Marketing Length: 43 Number: 308137 Creation-Date: 1990-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308137 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308137/files/aer629.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308137 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reinsel, Robert D. Author-Name: Banker, David Title: Aspects of Farm Finances: Distribution of Income, Family Income, and Direct Payments, 1986 Abstract: Farm program commodities are grown on farms with greatly differing input, output, and cost and income relationships. Financial conditions are thus widely diverse. The Farm Costs and Returns Survey of 1986 of the Economic Research Service has provided significant data on this diversity. For example, income is concentrated on large farms. Losses, however, tend to be distributed over many small farms. Direct income support for program commodities is also concentrated on large farms, which also are the major producers. Assets and debts tend to be associated with farms that are most able to repay debt. Farms with the highest value of sales and the highest gross family cash income tend to have the highest income-to-asset ratios. Conversely, farms with sales under $40,000 yield very low incomes relative to assets. Negative incomes (that is, losses) were found in 1986 for about 11 percent of farm families even when off-farm incomes were added in. Nevertheless, in that year, 27 percent of farm families had a total family cash incomes of over $40,000. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics Length: 26 Number: 308138 Creation-Date: 1990-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308138 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308138/files/aer630.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308138 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Bentley, Susan E. Author-Name: Saupe, William E. Title: Exits from Farming in Southwestern Wisconsin, 1982-86 Abstract: One in every five farm operators in southwestern Wisconsin left farming in the early 1980's. About 37 percent of farmers who left the sector exited because of financial stress. The majority who exited (63 percent) left voluntarily to retirement or to another occupation. Data from two surveys of the same farm operators in eight Wisconsin counties in 1982 and 1986 were analyzed to determine the demographic and financial characteristics of farm operators who left the sector. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics Length: 23 Number: 308139 Creation-Date: 1990-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308139 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308139/files/aer631.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308139 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Bowe, Russell Author-Name: Crawford, Terry Author-Name: Jessee, Warren Title: Costs of Producing U.S. Livestock, 1972-87: Estimating and Methodology Update Abstract: This report presents a way to make a consistent set of cost-and-returns estimates for U.S. livestock production in 1972-87, a period in which there were data gaps and in which many estimating methods and formats were used. The resulting consistent time series data can be used to track changes in the cost structure of the livestock industry over time and to analyze producer responses to costs. Forty-five tables compare costs of producing beef, hogs, and sheep by region and size of operation in 1972-87. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 107 Number: 308141 Creation-Date: 1990-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308141 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308141/files/aer632.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308141 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dicks, Michael R. Author-Name: Buckley, Katharine C. Author-Name: [editors] Title: Alternative Opportunities in Agriculture: Expanding Output through Diversification Abstract: Developing new crops or products could raise farm income and reduce government subsidies, the trade deficit, and potentially adverse environmental effects of farm production. Alternative opportunities (that is, any new enterprise, product, or production or processing practice) can aid U.S. farmers and rural economies by increasing the competitive advantage of current enterprises or by expanding output through diversification. Import substitution offers one measure of the potential market size for alternative opportunities. Substituting new crops or products for imports could add $15-$20 billion to farm income. U.S. farmers can either produce crops that are being imported or provide the materials that could substitute for imported nonagricultural materials. Alternative opportunities may be available to farmers if a competitive advantage results from producing these new crops and products. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Production Economics Length: 25 Number: 308142 Creation-Date: 1990-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308142 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308142/files/aer633.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308142 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hansen, LeRoy T. Author-Name: Hallam, Arne Title: Water Allocation Tradeoffs: Irrigation and Recreation Abstract: Diverting water from streams for irrigation competes with its use as a recreational fishing resource. This report develops a procedure for estimating the marginal value of water used for fishing that includes the effects of upstream diversions on all points downstream. The downstream effects are dispersed across a wide geographic area and, until now, have not been estimated. The procedure is applied to all 99 major river basins of the contiguous States. The tradeoffs in water allocation are detailed in the 67 river basins where irrigation competes for water with recreational fishing. The results substantiate the role of water for recreational fishing and highlight the implications of a national perspective in water allocation decisions. Keywords: Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 26 Number: 308143 Creation-Date: 1990-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308143 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308143/files/aer634.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308143 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Barse, Joseph R. Author-Name: [editor] Title: Seven Farm Input Industries Abstract: The authors of this report describe seven industries that provide resources for farming: Fertilizer, pesticides, energy, feed, credit, farm machinery, and hired labor. The authors explain the situation of the industries during 1966-86, how the industries relate to the U.S. agricultural sector, and how they may change in the future. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Crop Production/Industries, Industrial Organization, Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 123 Number: 308144 Creation-Date: 1990-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308144 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308144/files/aer635.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308144 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wills, Darryl S. Author-Name: Lee, Chinkook Title: Factor Intensity of U.S. Agricultural Trade Abstract: U.S. agricultural exports in 1987 employed an estimated 884,000 workers throughout the economy and an estimated 107 million acres of harvested cropland. Factor intensity is defined as the amount of a factor (land, labor, or capital) required economywide to produce $1 million of agricultural exports. In 1987, for each $1 million, U.S. agricultural exports required approximately 31 workers and 3,500 harvested acres, compared with 39 workers and 4,300 harvested acres in 1977. These changes in factor intensity reflect changes in prices, commodity composition, and factor productivity. Compared with agricultural imports, U.S. agricultural exports are capital and land intensive. Keywords: International Relations/Trade, Labor and Human Capital, Land Economics/Use, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 32 Number: 308145 Creation-Date: 1990-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308145 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308145/files/aer637.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308145 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edwards, Clark Title: Crops, Livestock, and Farm Programs: Overlooked Interactions Abstract: Shifts in consumer and importer demand, resource supply, technology, capital accumulation, or farm programs affect different enterprises in ways often unanticipated by economic analysts. Economic models often miss the disparate gains and losses contributed by three aspects of the agricultural economy: the feed-livestock relationship; target prices, loan rates, and deficiency payments in program crop price determination; and acreage reduction programs in sending economic information through the land market. A global, general equilibrium model examines these three aspects, shedding light on how a rise in price supports for crop farmers, for example, can hurt livestock feeders, or how tighter factor markets can hurt protected enterprises more than others. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 62 Number: 308146 Creation-Date: 1990-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308146 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308146/files/aer638.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308146 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Blaylock, James R. Author-Name: Blisard, William N. Title: Economic Well-Being and Household Size: Alternative Ways of Analyzing Demographic Information on Households Abstract: In this report... Researchers use income distribution to measure the economic well-being of the population. However, analyzing how much better off one household is than another is difficult because there are many factors to consider in order to present an accurate picture. One major obstacle in comparing the well-being of households of different sizes is deciding on the appropriate way to adjust household income so that all households, regardless of size, are on an equal level in the study. For example, does a four-person household require twice as much income as a two-person household to be equally as well-off? In this report, we examine some alternative ways of adjusting household income to compare welfare across different sized households and demonstrate that the demographic characteristics(such as age, race, sex) of the poorest and richest households can vary greatly with the type of adjustment method selected. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 8 Number: 308147 Creation-Date: 1990-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308147 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308147/files/aer640.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308147 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sparks, Amy L. Author-Name: Seale, James L., Jr. Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Title: Apple Import Demand: Four Markets for U.S. Fresh Apples Abstract: This report presents the results of an econometric analysis of four U.S. overseas apple markets and explores competition in Canada, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United Kingdom. The results indicate that the United States will increase its apple exports to these markets as they grow. However, U.S. import share will increase only slightly in Hong Kong and in the United Kingdom, while the share in the other two markets—Canada and Singapore—will either not quite, or just barely, be maintained. The results also show that the growth of Chile as a major world supplier of apples has not changed the U.S. competitive position in these markets. In Hong Kong, the U.S. competitive position has improved more because of the exit of China as a major apple supplier than it has declined because of the entry of Chile. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 23 Number: 308148 Creation-Date: 1990-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308148 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308148/files/aer641.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308148 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Krause, Kenneth R. Title: Cattle Feeding, 1962-89: Location and Feedlot Size Abstract: In 1989, four Plains States, Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, marketed over 70 percent of the 22,955,000 cattle that were fed in 13 cattle feeding States. In 1955, six States, Iowa, Nebraska, California, Illinois, Colorado, and Kansas, marketed about the same percentage of 9,001,000 fed cattle. Cattle feedlots in 13 States decreased from about 164,000 in 1962 to about 47,000 in 1989. Seventy-nine lots finished almost one-third and 391 lots finished over two-thirds of the fed cattle in 1989. The over 46,000 smaller lots finished the remaining one-third. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Industrial Organization, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 63 Number: 308149 Creation-Date: 1991-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308149 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308149/files/aer642.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308149 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Frisvold, George B. Author-Name: Lomax, Eugene Title: Differences in Agricultural Research and Productivity Among 26 Countries Abstract: Public investment in agricultural research is one of the major factors accounting for differences in agricultural productivity among countries. Research in agriculture measurably raises agricultural productivity. Research investment and productivity increase as a country's level of economic development increases. This report examines the contribution of research and other policy factors on agricultural productivity in 26 countries at various stages of economic development. It also explores differences among these countries in their willingness to make public investment in agricultural research. Keywords: International Development, Productivity Analysis, Public Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 22 Number: 308150 Creation-Date: 1991-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308150 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308150/files/aer644.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308150 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stam, Jerome M. Author-Name: Koenig, Steven R. Author-Name: Bentley, Susan E. Author-Name: Gale, H. Frederick, Jr. Title: Farm Financial Stress, Farm Exits, and Public Sector Assistance to the Farm Sector in the 1980's Abstract: The U.S. farm sector experienced the worst financial stress during the 1980's since the 1930's. Families leaving agriculture during the decade received considerable national attention, but the numbers were small by historical standards. When adjustments are made in farm numbers because of the 1974 change in the definition of a farm, the average annual decrease in farm numbers for 1980-90 was almost the same as that for 1970-80. This report places the farm financial stress and farm exits in the 1980's into context using a variety of information. The effects of short-term economic events on farm exits, net changes in farm numbers, longrun trends in farm numbers, and public sector support for the farm sector are examined. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Financial Economics, Public Economics, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 60 Number: 308151 Creation-Date: 1991-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308151 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308151/files/aer645.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308151 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sommer, Judith E. Author-Name: Hines, Fred K. Title: Diversity in U.S. Agriculture: A New Delineation by Farming Characteristics Abstract: Cluster analysis groups 2,972 farming-defined counties into 12 clusters that reveal patterns of agricultural production across America. The authors of this report describe the 12 clusters that are relatively homogeneous with respect to three dimensions: farm enterprise, farm resources, and farm-nonfarm linkages. Minimizing diversity within a cluster allows analysis of a specific economic force or public policy change on clusters with specific characteristics or comparison of differential effects of shocks across various clusters. Such a delineation offers a starting point for assessing regional differences in the effects of alternative public policies on the farm sector. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Livestock Production/Industries, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 23 Number: 308152 Creation-Date: 1991-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308152 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308152/files/aer646.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308152 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kane, Sally Author-Name: Reilly, John Author-Name: Tobey, James Title: Climate Change: Economic Implications for World Agriculture Abstract: Agricultural activities contribute to global climate change, and crop production will be affected if and when climate changes. Despite substantial yield effects of climate change, the economic effect on national and world economies is estimated to be small, as reduced production potential in some areas is balanced by gains in others. A slight increase in world output and a decline in commodity prices are estimated under a moderate climate change impact scenario. There remain major uncertainties in estimating future emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change, costs of controlling climate change, and the effects of climate change on society. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 31 Number: 308153 Creation-Date: 1991-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308153 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308153/files/aer647.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308153 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hanson, Gregory D. Author-Name: Parandvash, G. Hossein Author-Name: Ryan, James Title: Loan Repayment Problems of Farmers in the Mid-1980's Abstract: The inability of many farmers to repay debt obligations--due to falling commodity prices, stagnant farm income, and declining land values (the collateral securing much of the debt)--is probably the clearest example of the extent of the farm financial crisis of the early and mid-1980's. The problems of that period have since eased. Total outstanding farm debt fell $58 billion, from $206.5 billion at the beginning of 1984 to $148.5 billion by the end of 1988. Farmers used earnings retained from previous periods and increased cash incomes during 1984-87 to reduce their existing debts by more than $38 billion. Some of the adjustment occurred among agricultural lenders, who wrote off $20 billion in defaulted farm debts, about 10 percent of outstanding farm loans. The worst problems were thus resolved for most farmers but not all: agricultural lenders still face more than $2 billion in potential losses of principal and interest payments (loan losses). This report reviews the bottom line of the 1980's farm financial crisis: farmers' loan defaults and subsequent loan losses. These problems are also examined by location, farm size, farm type, and socioeconomic characteristics. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Financial Economics Length: 38 Number: 308154 Creation-Date: 1991-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308154 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308154/files/aer649.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308154 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Title: Costs of Producing Oranges in California and Florida, 1988/89 Abstract: Cost-of-production data were collected in March 1990 for oranges in the two leading U.S. orange producing States (Florida and California) as part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Farm Costs and Returns Survey. For the 1988/89 season, cash receipts per acre minus both variable and fixed cash expenses and capital replacement were positive for oranges in both States. Total economic costs per box of oranges were estimated to be $7.29 in California (75-pound box) and $7.48 in Florida (90-pound box). Returns above full economic costs were also positive in both States. Return to management was $311 per acre in Florida and $174 per acre in California. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 8 Number: 308155 Creation-Date: 1991-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308155 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308155/files/aer650.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308155 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buxton, Boyd M. Title: Costs of Producing Grapefruit in California and Florida, 1988/89 Abstract: Cost-of-production data were collected in March 1990 for grapefruit in Florida and California, the leading grapefruit-producing States, as part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Farm Costs and Returns Survey. For the 1988/89 season, cash receipts per acre minus both variable and fixed cash expenses and capital replacement were positive for grapefruit in both States. Total economic costs per box of grapefruit were estimated to be $6.82 in California (64-pound box) and $5.00 in Florida (85-pound box). Returns above full economic costs were negative in California, but positive in Florida. Return to management was $413 per acre in Florida and -$142 per acre in California. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Public Economics Length: 8 Number: 308156 Creation-Date: 1991-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308156 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308156/files/aer652.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308156 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Capehart, Tom Author-Name: Clauson, Annette Title: Flue-Cured Tobacco Farms: Selected Characteristics Abstract: Flue-cured tobacco acreage per farm expanded in the 1980's Because of increased mechanization, reduced labor availability, and Government policies that encouraged larger quota holdings. These trends resulted in a dramatically altered structure for flue-cured tobacco production. The proportion of producers who both rent and own their quota rose relative to those who produced solely with owned quota. Labor used for planting, growing, and harvesting flue-cured tobacco continued to decrease. This study examines the structure of flue-cured tobacco farming in five Southeastern States. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Production Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 38 Number: 308157 Creation-Date: 1991-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308157 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308157/files/aer653.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308157 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Knudson, Mary Author-Name: Hansen, LeRoy Title: Intellectual Property Rights and the Private Seed Industry Abstract: Laws protecting intellectual property rights encourage private sector seed research and development. This report examines the Plant-Variety Protection Act (the PVPA) of 1970 as well as the Plant Patent Act (PPA) of 1930 and other forms of research protection, such as utility patents (UP's) and trade secrecy. The report explores the relative profitability to farmers of using purchased seed rather than bin run seed (the previous year's harvest), since the use of purchased seed encourages private seed research and development. To compare profits, winter wheat yields are regressed against the source of seed and other variable inputs for three sections of the United States in 1986/87 and 1987/88. The results show that, on average, farmers who use bin run seed could increase yields by using purchased seed. Also, profits would probably increase both for farmers who begin purchasing seed and for the private seed research sector. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 26 Number: 308158 Creation-Date: 1991-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308158 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308158/files/aer654.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308158 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sparks, Amy L. Title: Orange Import Demand: Four Markets for U.S. Fresh Oranges Abstract: This report presents the results of an econometric analysis of four U.S. overseas orange markets and explores competition in Canada, the European Community (EC), Singapore, and Hong Kong. The results indicate that the United States will increase its orange exports to these markets if they expand their orange imports. U.S. import share will increase significantly in Singapore and moderately in Canada and Hong Kong, and it will either not quite or just barely be maintained in the EC. Keywords: Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 23 Number: 308260 Creation-Date: 1991-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308260 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308260/files/aer655.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308260 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ash, Mark S. Title: Animal Feeds Compendium Abstract: The major animal feedstuffs in this compendium include green forages and dry roughages, feed grains and their processed byproducts, protein concentrates from oilseeds and animals, vitamin and mineral supplements, and other additives. How they are produced, their geographic distribution and marketing, trends in supply and demand, and the relative value of each feedstuff in animal nutrition are emphasized. Feed supplies depend on many factors, including agricultural policies, climate, soil type, and availability of processing and storage facilities. Animal inventories, proximity of supplies to animals, palatability, nutritional composition and availability, and ease of substitution between competitively priced alternative feeds determine the aggregate consumption of each ingredient. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis Length: 168 Number: 308262 Creation-Date: 1992-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308262 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308262/files/aer656.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308262 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Manchester, Alden C. Title: Rearranging The Economic Landscape: The Food Marketing Revolution, 1950-91 Abstract: Changes in food marketing have been pervasive since World War II. Changes in the makeup of the population, lifestyles, incomes, and attitudes on food safety, health, and convenience have drastically altered the conditions facing farmers and marketers of food products. Food manufacturers and distributors have made vigorous efforts to meet changing consumer wants and needs. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Marketing Length: 171 Number: 308263 Creation-Date: 1992-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308263 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308263/files/aer660.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308263 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Crutchfield, Stephen R. Author-Name: Ribaudo, Mark O. Author-Name: Hansen, LeRoy T. Author-Name: Quiroga, Ricardo Title: Cotton Production and Water Quality: Economic and Environmental Effects of Pollution Prevention Abstract: Cotton production, compared with other crops, is less likely to cause erosion-induced water-quality problems because cotton acreage is not the major source of erosion in most regions. For cotton production, the most widespread potential damages to water quality are from nitrates in fertilizer polluting ground water and pesticides contaminating surface water. This damage could be reduced by restricting chemical and fertilizer use on all cotton production, but doing so could reduce cotton yields and raise cotton prices. The same level of water quality improvement could be achieved at less cost by targeting the chemical use or erosion restrictions only to cotton farms with the most vulnerable soils. Data come from a 1989 USDA survey of cotton producers. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 42 Number: 308264 Creation-Date: 1992-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308264 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308264/files/aer664.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308264 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brown, Dennis M. Title: Changes in the Red Meat and Poultry Industries: Their Effect on Nonmetro Employment Abstract: This report describes changes in the red meat and poultry industries and assesses the potential of these industries for creating economic growth in the nonmetro United States. Growth in the red meat and poultry industries is not expected to be evenly spread throughout the Nation. The red meat packing industry is expected to continue growing in selected rural counties of the Plains States and the Corn Belt. And, poultry processing is expected to continue growing in areas of the Delmarva Peninsula, the Southeast, and Arkansas and Texas. Input-output analysis is used to examine the local effect of changes in final demand for meat products in areas with important red meat and poultry industries. Direct, indirect, and induced employment effects are explored. Because of greater labor intensity in poultry processing, the local employment effect of a change in final demand for meat products is larger for areas specializing in the poultry industry than for those areas specializing in the red meat industry. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Demand and Price Analysis, Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries Length: 32 Number: 308265 Creation-Date: 1993-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308265 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308265/files/aer665.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308265 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ahearn, Mary C. Author-Name: Perry, Janet E. Author-Name: El-Osta, Hisham S. Title: The Economic Well-Being of Farm Operator Households, 1988-90 Abstract: This report, based on household data from the Farm Costs and Returns Survey, describes the characteristics of farm operator households and their farm businesses. It also examines the sources of off-farm income received by farm operator households. This report finds that the average farm household now has an income comparable to that for all U.S. households, although wellbeing varies significantly across households. About 90 percent of farm operator households received income from off-farm sources. Although more than half of farm operators claim farming as their major occupation, a much smaller share has farm income as the household's principal source of income. This report inaugurates a new U.S. Department of Agriculture farm household income series. Keywords: Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics, Labor and Human Capital Length: 187 Number: 308266 Creation-Date: 1993-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308266 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308266/files/aer666.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308266 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glauber, Joseph W. Author-Name: Harwood, Joy L. Author-Name: Skees, Jerry R. Title: An Alternative for Reducing Federal Crop Insurance Program Losses Abstract: The Federal crop insurance program saw indemnities exceed premiums by $2.5 billion in the 1980's, a decade of widespread drought and rapid growth in insurance participation. This excess loss, after small surpluses for most of the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation's history, masks the wide variation in performance among crops and regions. More than half of program excess losses were for soybeans (mostly those produced in Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi) and wheat (mostly that produced in Montana and North Dakota). An alternative method of crop insurance, with payments based on yield losses in a geographic area rather than those experienced by individual producers, may help to reduce excess losses. A pilot program using such a method is being tested for soybeans. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Crop Production/Industries, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 27 Number: 308267 Creation-Date: 1993-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308267 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308267/files/aer668.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308267 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hyberg, Bengt T. Author-Name: Ash, Mark Author-Name: Lin, William Author-Name: Lin, Chin-zen Author-Name: Aldrich, Lorna Author-Name: Pace, David Title: Economic Implications of Cleaning Wheat in the United States Abstract: The costs of cleaning wheat exceed the domestic benefits of cleaning wheat. The absence of net domestic benefits from cleaning wheat suggests that the U.S. wheat market is responding efficiently to domestic market signals for less dockage and foreign material in wheat. An overall reduction in dockage and foreign material could benefit the U.S. wheat industry only if cleaner U.S. wheat induces sufficient trade benefits to overcome the net domestic cost. Barring any benefits from increased sales and premiums on the international market, there is no basis for mandatory cleaning requirements in the United States based on the costs and benefits of cleaning wheat. The least-cost alternative of cleaning wheat is at the subterminal elevator, which had a $23 million net cost. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 64 Number: 308269 Creation-Date: 1993-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308269 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308269/files/aer669.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308269 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mercier, Stephanie A. Title: The Role of Quality in Wheat Import Decisionmaking Abstract: The dramatic losses in U.S. wheat market share over the last 10-15 years (a 40- percent decline since 1973) have raised the question of whether additional wheat cleaning would help the competitiveness of U.S. grain. When making decisions about wheat import sources, importers consider factors such as price, wheat quality, trade-servicing reliability, and political relationships. This study focuses on the function of quality in the import decisionmaking process, particularly the cleanliness of wheat. This study finds that wheat quality matters most in markets that do not receive export subsidies or other forms of export assistance, and countries that conduct imports under a state trading system are less likely to be sensitive to quality and more sensitive to price. Offering cleaner wheat to all U.S. wheat export customers would have a net cost of at least $8 million. Delivering a higher quality wheat to select import customers could help maintain market share and even slightly expand share in certain quality-sensitive markets, leading to a net benefit to the U.S. wheat sector of $7-$9 million each year. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 73 Number: 308270 Creation-Date: 1993-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308270 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308270/files/aer670.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308270 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vesterby, Marlow Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Author-Name: Krupa, Kenneth S. Title: Urbanization of Rural Land in the United States Abstract: While urban area increased rapidly during the 1970's, it was a small percentage of total land area. Cropland and pasture losses were comparatively small. Conversion of other rural land to cropland and pasture replaced more than one-third of losses to urban uses. "Land consumption" by urban uses has remained constant at about a half acre per household in fast-growth counties since 1960. The most rapidly growing counties had the highest land conversion rates. Higher rates also occurred in counties with smaller initial populations than in counties with larger population bases. However, these counties accounted for little total land conversion. Projected urban land conversion will not significantly reduce the U.S. cropland base by the year 2000. Increases in agricultural production due to technological change should more than compensate for projected cropland losses. Urbanization of agricultural land does raise issues at the State and local levels in regard to protecting watersheds, maintaining air quality, maintaining open space, preserving rural lifestyles, preventing urban sprawl, and preserving local economies. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 62 Number: 308271 Creation-Date: 1994-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308271 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308271/files/aer673.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308271 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Letson, David Author-Name: Crutchfield, Stephen Author-Name: Malik, Arun Title: Point-Nonpoint Source Trading for Managing Agricultural Pollutant Loadings: Prospects for Coastal Watersheds Abstract: A recent focus of water quality discussions has been the idea of “trading” cleanup efforts between pollution sources. Trading would allow a polluting firm to sponsor pollution controls elsewhere in a watershed rather than install controls of its own. Point-nonpoint trading takes place between two dissimilar firms, one, a point source, involving traceable pollution, and another, a nonpoint source, producing more diffuse pollution, such as runoff of agricultural chemicals from cropland. If nonpoint source pollution is significant and the cost of its control is lower than for additional point source controls, trading could achieve water quality goals at a lower cost. This analysis provides an initial, empirical assessment of the feasibility of trading for managing agricultural land use in coastal watersheds to protect water quality. Keywords: Environmental Economics and Policy, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 20 Number: 308279 Creation-Date: 1993-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308279 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308279/files/aer674.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308279 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, William Author-Name: Leath, Mack Title: Costs and Benefits of Cleaning U.S. Wheat: Overview and Implications Abstract: Cleaning all U.S. wheat for export above the current level is not economically feasible because costs of additional cleaning at the lowest net-cost location--country elevators for spring wheat and subterminal elevators for winter wheat--would outweigh benefits by at least $8 million in the short run. Since it is not in the U.S. wheat industry's interest to clean all export wheat, an alternative would be to target clean wheat for special niche markets. The wheat industry could potentially gain $8 to $10 million in net benefits if it targets wheat cleaning to the cleanliness-conscious markets, which account for about 20 percent of all U.S. wheat exports. Any public policy designed to promote cleanliness of U.S. wheat exports and to improve U.S. competitiveness in the world market must address the issue of how much, where, and which classes of wheat to clean and target for cleanliness-conscious markets. Policy options worthy of consideration include establishing dockage as a grade-determining factor, segregating wheat by its intrinsic characteristics, and launching an information (outreach) program to meet buyer preferences and to familiarize foreign buyers with U.S. wheat quality. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 33 Number: 308280 Creation-Date: 1993-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308280 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308280/files/aer675.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308280 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ferguson, Walter Author-Name: Padula, Armand Title: Economic Effects of Banning Methyl Bromide for Soil Fumigation Abstract: Methyl bromide (MB), a soil fumigant, may be banned by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) because of its potential to damage the ozone layer. Banning MB would cost about $1 billion annually in combined effects on growers' net revenue and consumer cost. Agricultural imports could moderate price increases and consumer losses but would magnify U.S. growers' losses. A crop-by-crop phaseout could reduce the economic effects of a cancellation or immediate suspension of MB. This report estimates the first year's effects on producers and consumers if the EPA cancels or suspends MB. The analysis includes 21 crops grown in 5 States--California, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 42 Number: 308281 Creation-Date: 1994-03 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308281 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308281/files/aer677.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308281 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Wunderlich, Gene Author-Name: Blackledge, John Title: Taxing Farmland in the United States Abstract: Conceptually, the ad valorem real property tax should be directly proportional to the value of the real property being taxed. However, according to the 1988 Agricultural Economics and Land Ownership Survey (AELOS), taxes paid per $100 of value of farm land and buildings declined with increases in the value of holdings. For example, landholdings valued at less than $70,000 were taxed at an average rate of $1.45 per $100 of value, while holdings of $5 million or more were taxed at 47 cents per $100. This report examines possible causes for the regressive tax rates on farm property, including State variations in tax rates, assessment bias, and landholder characteristics. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Financial Economics, Land Economics/Use Length: 23 Number: 308282 Creation-Date: 1994-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308282 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308282/files/aer679.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308282 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sparks, Amy L. Title: Pear Import Demand: Three Markets for U.S. Fresh Pears Abstract: This report presents the results of an econometric analysis of two U.S. overseas pear markets, Canada and Sweden, and explores competition among the major importers into these markets. The results indicate that the United States will increase its pear exports to Canada if Canada expands its pear imports, and U.S. import share will increase slightly in Sweden. Mexico is a third primary market for U.S. pears but involves little competition, since the United States is virtually Mexico's only supplier Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 23 Number: 308283 Creation-Date: 1994-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308283 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308283/files/aer681.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308283 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mathews, Kenneth H., Jr. Author-Name: Hahn, William F. Author-Name: Nelson, Ken E. Author-Name: Crawford, Terry L. Title: Cow/Calf Ranching in 10 Western States Abstract: This report identifies differences between beef cow/calf operations with permits to graze Forest Service (FS) and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land and other operations in 10 Western and Plains States. The main differences are that those operations with FS/BLM grazing permits had higher net returns above cash costs (even though their gross receipts and cash costs per cow are lower), sold fewer pounds per cow of all cattle and calves, had larger cow herds, had more sheep, and purchased fewer stocker cattle. Fencing, breeding stock, and hired labor cost permittees more, but they paid sufficiently less for harvested forages and rented pasture to more than offset other higher costs. Regression models based on cow herd size demonstrated that permittees had significantly higher net returns above cash costs per hundredweight of cattle sold. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Land Economics/Use, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 17 Number: 308284 Creation-Date: 1994-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308284 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308284/files/aer682.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308284 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lee, Chinkook Author-Name: Robinson, Michelle Title: Factor Intensity and the Changing Commodity Composition of U.S. Agricultural Trade Abstract: This report uses the 1977 and the recently released 1982 national Input-Output (I/O) accounts of the U.S. economy to examine factor intensities and associated patterns of U.S. agricultural trade. U.S. agricultural exports were found to be more land-intensive than U.S. agricultural imports. However, the commodity composition of these exports tends to change as the income of importing countries changes. Furthermore, the more similar the countries that import from the United States are, in terms of economic factors, and the higher their incomes, the greater the likelihood of intra-industry, or two-way, trade in high-value commodities such as meat products and fruits and vegetables. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, International Relations/Trade, Labor and Human Capital, Land Economics/Use, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 19 Number: 308285 Creation-Date: 1994-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308285 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308285/files/aer683.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308285 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mercier, Stephanie A. Title: The Role of Quality in Corn Import Decisionmaking Abstract: U.S. corn exports continue to dominate the world coarse grain market with little change in U.S. market share. The lack of gains in the U.S. share over the past few decades has renewed interest in the question of whether corn cleaning would help the competitiveness of U.S. grain. Mandating cleaner corn under current production and marketing practices would have little appreciable effect on the market share or value of U.S. corn exports. The bottom line is that the world corn market is functioning fairly well, based on importers’ knowledge of the type and the characteristics of corn they generally receive from various exporters. This study focuses on the function of quality in the import decisionmaking process, particularly as it relates to the cleanliness of corn. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 52 Number: 308286 Creation-Date: 1994-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308286 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308286/files/aer684.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308286 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Hoppe, Robert A. Title: Farming Operations and Households in Farming Areas: A Closer Look Abstract: Although the number of counties economically dependent on farming has declined over the years, agriculture has not disappeared from most counties that are no longer farming-dependent. Farming is still significant in many of those counties. This report presents three groups of counties based on each county's share of local earnings from farming and the size of its local farm sector. Understanding the similarities and differences among the three county groups should be useful when devising measures to help farm operator households and their communities. Keywords: Agribusiness, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics Length: 39 Number: 308287 Creation-Date: 1994-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308287 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308287/files/aer685.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308287 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, Chin-Zen Author-Name: Lin, William Title: Economic Implications of Cleaning Corn in the United States Abstract: Although foreign buyers prefer low-BCFM (broken corn and foreign material) corn, cleaning is not the solution to quality issues associated with U.S. corn cleanliness. The cost of cleaning corn above the current level at the least net-cost locations, both inland subterminals and river elevators, exceeds domestic benefits by $49 million. Because of the breakage susceptibility of corn kernels, the BCFM level in U.S. corn increases as corn moves toward ports. Thus, cleaning at the current level would still need to occur at every point in the marketing channel along with the additional cleaning to lower the BCFM level. The best approach to address the corn cleanliness issue is to reduce breakage susceptibility in corn through careful selection of drying systems and developing genotypes or hybrid varieties less prone to breakage. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 33 Number: 308288 Creation-Date: 1994-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308288 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308288/files/aer686.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308288 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, William Author-Name: Lin, Chin-Zen Author-Name: Leath, Mack Title: Costs and Benefits of Cleaning U.S. Corn: Overview and Implications Abstract: Although foreign buyers show a strong preference for clean corn, cleaning is not the solution to the U.S. corn cleanliness issue. The cost of cleaning corn above and beyond the current level at the least net-cost locations, at both inland subterminals and river elevators, would exceed all benefits by $49 million per year. Costs of additional cleaning would exceed benefits in both domestic and international markets at all points in the production-marketing system. Corn price, not quality, was regarded as the most important criterion in importers' purchase decisions in most importing countries included in this study. The best way to address the corn cleanliness issue is to reduce breakage susceptibility in corn through carefully selecting drying systems and developing genotypes or hybrid varieties that are less prone to breakage. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing, Production Economics Length: 33 Number: 308289 Creation-Date: 1994-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308289 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308289/files/aer688.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308289 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Levedahl, J. William Author-Name: Ballenger, Nicole Author-Name: Harold, Courtney Title: Comparing the Emergency Food Assistance Program and The Food Stamp Program: Recipient Characteristics, Market Effects, and Benefit/Cost Ratios Abstract: The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP), a commodity-based program, and the coupon-based Food Stamp Program can, for a given level of expenditure, serve more needy households than either program can serve alone. TEFAP distributes Government surpluses and purchased commodities to needy households. Although TEFAP expenditures ($300 million per year since 1989) are small compared with those of the Food Stamp Program ($23.6 billion in FY1993), a commodity-based program such as TEFAP can complement food stamps by distributing food to households unwilling to apply for food stamps because of complicated application procedures and the stigma attached to food stamps. TEFAP can also increase awareness of eligibility for food stamps and other Federal assistance. This report compares the programs’ recipients, effects on food and nonfood markets, and benefit/cost ratios. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty Length: 21 Number: 308290 Creation-Date: 1994-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308290 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308290/files/aer689.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308290 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Perez, Agnes M. Title: Changing Structure of U.S. Dairy Farms Abstract: Large dairy farms (with 100 or more milk cows) housed nearly half of the U.S. dairy herd in 1993. These large dairies represented just 13.6 percent of all U.S. farms with milk cows, but they were responsible for about 50 percent of total milk production. Farms with fewer than 30 milk cows have declined in both number and share of all farms with milk cows continuously since 1977. Farms with 30-49 milk cows also have declined in number, but their share of all farms with milk cows gradually increased until 1990, and then began a slow decline. Farms with 50 or more milk cows have increased in recent years, with farms having 100 or more milk cows increasing most in both number and share of all farms with milk cows. The largest farms are also increasing most in the West and Southwest. The traditional milk-producing States of the Northeast and Lake States have seen their share of milk production become stable and then decline in recent years. Keywords: Livestock Production/Industries, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 26 Number: 308291 Creation-Date: 1994-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308291 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308291/files/aer690.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308291 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Clauson, Annette L. Author-Name: Grise, Verner N. Title: Flue-Cured Tobacco Farming: Two Decades of Change Abstract: Flue-cured tobacco acreage per farm expanded during the last two decades because of growers' desire to enhance their incomes, availability and use of more labor-efficient production and harvesting practices, and Government policies that encouraged larger quotabholdings. These trends caused continuing changes in the structure for flue-cured tobacco production. The proportion of producers who both own and rent their quota rose relative to those who produced either with all-owned or all-rented quota. Labor used for planting, growing, and harvesting the flue-cured tobacco crop has declined during the last two decades, but use of migrant labor has increased. This study examines the structure of flue-cured tobacco farming in four Southeastern States and updates several previous studies. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 41 Number: 308415 Creation-Date: 1994-08 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308415 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308415/files/aer692.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308415 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gale, Fred Title: What Tobacco Farming Means to Local Economies Abstract: Consumers spent over $45 billion on tobacco products in 1991, generating income and employment in wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing, sales, distribution, storage, and tobacco farming. Tobacco farms are a small part of the tobacco industry, with the domestic farm value of tobacco accounting for about 3 cents per dollar spent on tobacco products in the United States. Tobacco farms play a modest role in most local economies. The estimated impact of tobacco production in 1990 ranged from 0.5 to 15 percent of personal income and from 0.5 to 10.9 percent of employment in tobacco-growing areas. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital Length: 27 Number: 308416 Creation-Date: 1994-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308416 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308416/files/aer694.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308416 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gale, Fred Title: The New Generation of American Farmers: Farm Entry and Exit Prospects for the 1990's Abstract: Between 1992 and 2002, more than 500,000 older farmers will exit, to be replaced by about 250,000 new young farmers. Farm numbers are expected to decline about 1.3 percent annually, reaching about 1.7 million by 2002. Farm entries will likely continue at low levels. The decline in farm numbers is not a threat to the Nation's food supply. The complex workings of land and credit markets will determine how farm assets of retiring farmers are transferred to the next generation. The outcome of this process has important implications for the structure of farming in the next century. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Farm Management, Labor and Human Capital Length: 45 Number: 308417 Creation-Date: 1994-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308417 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308417/files/aer695.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308417 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Pope, Leslie Title: Plant Biotechnology: Out of the Laboratory and into the Field Abstract: As the first products of plant biotechnology become commercialized, questions have been raised about the types of plants under development and the goals of the organizations using plant biotechnology. This second question is particularly important, because some chemical/pesticide companies have acquired several seed companies. These acquisitions have led some policy-makers and university researchers to assert that pesticide/chemical companies will dominate plant biotechnology research and not develop seeds that can substitute for chemicals. This paper examines these questions by using plant biotechnology field-test permit data to characterize the organizations undertaking plant biotechnology research and to describe and analyze their plant development strategies. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 19 Number: 308418 Creation-Date: 1995-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308418 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308418/files/aer697.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308418 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Heimlich, Ralph E. Author-Name: Barnard, Charles H. Title: Economics of Agricultural Management Measures in the Coastal Zone Abstract: On November 5, 1990, Congress passed the Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments (CZARA), adding important nonpoint source water pollution requirements to the provisions of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The potential significance of the agricultural nonpoint source requirements in CZARA is twofold. First, it is the first federally mandated program requiring specific measures to deal with agricultural nonpoint sources. Second, it is being viewed as a model for stronger programs to deal with nonpoint source pollution. Based on an analysis of management measures included in EPA's national guidance and coastal farm profiles, annual costs of the proposed measures are typically less than $5,000 per farm for most farm sizes. Exceptions are grazing management measures on larger farm sizes in the West, for which costs range up to $75,539, and combined measures on larger dairy farms in all regions, for which costs range from $9,606 to $26,824. While coastal zone agriculture is quite different in both physical and economic terms from noncoastal agriculture, the general level of costs, impact on incomes, and relative differences between types of farms and size classes provide insight for a more comprehensive national program of nonpoint source control measures. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 53 Number: 308419 Creation-Date: 1995-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308419 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308419/files/aer698.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308419 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dodson, Charles B. Title: Commercial U.S. Feed Grain Farms: Financial Performance, 1987-91 Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: Corn, soybeans, and sorghum make up about a third of all U.S. crop receipts. Corn, soybeans, and sorghum also represent major crops produced by specialized feed grain farms. More than 80 percent of commercial feed grain farmers, defined as those with annual sales of $50,000 or more and for whom farming was their primary occupation, realized positive incomes over the 1987-91 period. The profitability of commercial feed grain farms, measured by return on assets, exceeded that of commercial producers of small grains (oats, wheat, barley), beef, and dairy, matched that of commercial hog producers, and was less than that of commercial farms producing cotton and rice over the 1987-91 period. Nearly three-fourths of the commercial feed grain farms are in the Midwest, and they produce 70 percent of U.S. corn, 78 percent of U.S. soybeans, and 33 percent of U.S. sorghum. Keywords: Agricultural Finance, Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 33 Number: 308420 Creation-Date: 1995 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308420 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308420/files/aer702.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308420 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pollack, Susan L. Author-Name: Calvin, Linda Title: U.S.-Mexico Fruit and Vegetable Trade, 1970-92 Abstract: Fruit and vegetable trade between the United States and Mexico grew tremendously between 1970 and 1992. Mexico was the major source of U.S. imports of winter and cool-weather vegetables and citrus fruit. U.S. exports of fruit and vegetables to Mexico also began to grow, especially in the last few years of the period. U.S. horticultural products, however, were still minor export commodities in 1992, compared with grains and animal products. The data in this report are useful for understanding the trade situation between the two countries. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade, Productivity Analysis Length: 150 Number: 308421 Creation-Date: 1995-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308421 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308421/files/aer704.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308421 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sanford, Scott Author-Name: Evans, Sam Title: Peanuts: Background for 1995 Farm Legislation Abstract: Throughout much of its history, the peanut program led to surplus production and substantial government costs. To remedy these problems, farm legislation in 1977 initiated a two-price poundage quota peanut program. As efforts to reduce costs continued, the 1981 Act provided for a decrease in the poundage quota each year to eliminate an excess of peanuts being supported at the higher of the two support prices. The 1985 Act extended these provisions and established guidelines for matching the poundage quota with use. The 1990 Act extended most of the 1985 provisions through the 1995 crop as costs seemed to be contained. Now the peanut program finds itself in much the same predicament that plagued its past—surplus production and high costs. Some argue that the current program is flawed and must be changed, while others suggest the program has outlived its purpose and should be eliminated. Few observers disagree that new trade agreements and recent changes in peanut consumption patterns necessitate a fresh look at the peanut program. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, International Relations/Trade Length: 37 Number: 308422 Creation-Date: 1995-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308422 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308422/files/aer710.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308422 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lin, Biing-Hwan Author-Name: Padgitt, Merritt Author-Name: Bull, Len Author-Name: Delvo, Herman Author-Name: Shank, David Author-Name: Taylor, Harold Title: Pesticide and Fertilizer Use and Trends in U.S. Agriculture Abstract: Pesticides used on major crops more than doubled during 1964-82 (from 233 to 612 million pounds of active ingredients). Nitrogen, phosphate, and potash use for all purposes (agriculture and nonagriculture) rose from 7.5 million pounds in 1960 to a record high of 23.7 million pounds in 1981. These increases in pesticide and fertilizer use were a result of a larger crop acreage, higher application rates per acre, and increased proportions of acres treated with chemicals. Since the early 1980's, pesticide and fertilizer use in U.S. agriculture has declined with crop acreage, and amounted to 574 million pounds of pesticides and 20.7 million tons of fertilizers in 1992. Corn leads other crops, by a substantial margin, in the total quantity of pesticides and fertilizers used. Insecticide use on corn can be greatly reduced by rotating crops and significant reductions in herbicide and nitrogen use can be achieved by adjusting application timing and method. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 53 Number: 308423 Creation-Date: 1995-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308423 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308423/files/aer717.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308423 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Buist, Henry Author-Name: Fischer, Carolyn Author-Name: Michos, John Author-Name: Tegene, Abebayehu Title: Purchase of Development Rights and the Economics of Easements Abstract: Since the 1970's, an increasing number of State and local governments have administered purchase of development rights programs (PDR's) that use easements to protect farmland and similar lands from conversion to other land uses, such as residential development. The economic principles, issues, and problems underlying these farmland protection programs are broadly examined, with an emphasis on basic design and implementation aspects of easement programs. Other issues, such as the role of private land trusts in farmland protection, are also discussed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Community/Rural/Urban Development, Land Economics/Use Length: 26 Number: 308424 Creation-Date: 1995-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308424 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308424/files/aer718.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308424 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ollinger, Michael Author-Name: Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge Title: Regulation, Innovation, and Market Structure in the U.S. Pesticide Industry Abstract: Pesticide regulation encourages the development of "less toxic" pesticides but discourages new chemical pesticide registrations, increases the market size for new pesticides, and encourages chemical pesticide firms to abandon minor crop markets. Pesticide regulation also favors large firms over small ones and encourages firms to develop nonchemical alternatives to chemical pesticides. Keywords: Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 37 Number: 308425 Creation-Date: 1995-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308425 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308425/files/aer719.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308425 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Schaible, Glenn D. Author-Name: Gollehon, Noel R. Author-Name: Kramer, Mark S. Author-Name: Aillery, Marcel P. Author-Name: Moore, Michael R. Title: Economic Analysis of Selected Water Policy Options for the Pacific Northwest Abstract: Agriculture in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) could use significantly less water with minimal impact on agricultural economic returns. Less water use by agriculture makes more water available for municipal, industrial, and recreational uses; for improved water quality and wildlife habitat; and for Native American water rights claims. Net water savings up to 18.5 percent of current levels of field crop use can be realized by such actions as reducing Bureau of Reclamation (BoR) surface-water diversion, improving water-use efficiency, and raising the cost of water. Effects on agricultural economic returns for PNW field crops range from a decline of $22 million (1.7 percent) to an increase of $171 million (13.3 percent). Combining different approaches spreads the conservation burden among farmers, water suppliers, and production regions. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Demand and Price Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 64 Number: 308426 Creation-Date: 1995-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308426 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308426/files/aer720.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308426 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mercier, Stephanie A. Author-Name: Gohlke, Brian Title: The Role of Quality in Soybean Import Decisionmaking Abstract: U.S. soybean and soybean meal exports have experienced considerable competitive pressure from South American exports in the last decade. The recent decline in the U.S. share has renewed interest in determining whether cleaner soybeans would help the competitiveness of the U.S. soybean sector. Mandating cleaner soybeans under current production and marketing practices would have a minor effect on the market share or value of U.S. soybean exports. Soybean crushers, who dominate imports of soybeans, are largely concerned about relative prices between oilseeds and meals and their oil and protein content, though cleanliness does play a secondary role in the decisionmaking process. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, International Relations/Trade, Marketing Length: 49 Number: 308427 Creation-Date: 1995-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308427 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308427/files/aer722.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308427 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McBride, William D. Title: U.S. Hog Production Costs and Returns, 1992: An Economic Basebook Abstract: The U.S. hog production industry has experienced significant structural change during the past decade. Fewer and larger operations have more and more come to characterize the industry. Data from the Farm Costs and Returns Survey are used to describe the hog production industry in 1992 and to examine some of the issues resulting from structural change. Characteristics and production costs are presented for various types of hog operations. Also, the distribution of hog production costs, size relationships in hog production, regional changes in hog production, and production contract activity in the hog industry are examined. Keywords: Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 61 Number: 308428 Creation-Date: 1995-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308428 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308428/files/aer724.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308428 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stam, Jerome M. Author-Name: Koenig, Steven R. Author-Name: Wallace, George B. Title: Life Insurance Company Mortgage Lending to U.S. Agriculture: Challenges and Opportunities Abstract: This report examines the historical and current role of life insurance companies in providing capital to the U.S. farm sector. Special attention is paid to the activities of the life insurance industry in the wake of farm sector financial stress in the 1980's and the advent of the Farmer Mac secondary market for farm mortgage loans. As a result, fewer life insurance companies offer new farm loans, portfolios are more diversified, loans are larger, and lending has shifted to the Southeast and West. Life insurance companies were leaders in developing the first loan pools guaranteed by Farmer Mac. Through time, they have lessened involvement in direct farm loan activities, increased direct ownership of farmland, and achieved wider flexibility in managing their agricultural investment portfolios. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance Length: 65 Number: 308429 Creation-Date: 1995-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308429 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308429/files/aer725.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308429 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ali, Mir B. Author-Name: Brooks, Nora L. Title: U.S. Barley Production Costs and Returns, 1992: An Economic Basebook Abstract: This report presents barley production cost and return estimates for the 1992 production year obtained from USDA's Farm Costs and Returns Survey, along with coefficients of variation for each cost item. Estimates are presented for the United States, regions, selected States, variable cost groups, and enterprise size groups. Farm characteristics and input use are also included for each of these groups. Production costs vary due to location, differences in yields, irrigation, and input use. The report also includes an analysis of the effects of Government program participation on barley production costs and returns. Costs and returns for barley farm operators were also estimated, and several farm and operator characteristics were examined as sources of unit cost variation. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Production Economics Length: 78 Number: 308430 Creation-Date: 1996-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308430 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308430/files/aer726.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308430 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Aillery, Marcel P. Author-Name: et al. [+7] Title: Salmon Recovery in the Pacific Northwest: Agricultural and other Economic Effects Abstract: Measures taken in the Northwest to recover three Snake River salmon runs protected under the Endangered Species Act—and to improve the entire Columbia River Basin salmon fishery—will result in various benefits and costs. This report analyzes the effect on the region's agricultural sector of two proposed measures: reservoir drawdown along the lower Snake River and reductions in irrigation water supply in the upper Snake River Basin. For the Northwest region, adjustments in crop production could lower producer profit by $4-$35 million annually (less than 3 percent of 1987 baseline profit), depending on the scenario evaluated. Agricultural employment could decrease by 50-2,600 jobs, while total employment could decrease by 600-5,500 jobs. The report also analyzes selected economic benefits of salmon recovery, including improvements in commercial and sport fishing. Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 78 Number: 308431 Creation-Date: 1996-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308431 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308431/files/aer727.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308431 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kuchler, Fred Author-Name: Ralston, Katherine Author-Name: Unnevehr, Laurian Author-Name: Chandran, Ram Title: Pesticide Residues: Reducing Dietary Risks Abstract: New data on pesticide residues, food consumption, and pesticide use reveal both the sources of consumers' dietary intake of pesticide residues and the benefits of research to develop safer alternatives to pesticide use. Consumers' dietary intake comes from four sources: onfarm pesticide use, post-harvest pesticide use, pesticides used on imported foods, and canceled pesticides that persist in the environment. Post-harvest uses account for the largest share of dietary intake of residues, but canceled and persistent chemicals appear among the highest risk indicators. Thus, research to develop onfarm pest control alternatives will not address all of the sources of these residues. While most pesticide uses do not result in detectable residues, higher levels of use do result in higher residues. The geographic source of residues can be identified. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Risk and Uncertainty Length: 45 Number: 308432 Creation-Date: 1996-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308432 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308432/files/aer728.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308432 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Short, Sara D. Author-Name: McBride, William D. Title: U. S. Milk Production Costs and Returns, 1993: An Economic Basebook Abstract: The U.S. milk production industry experienced significant structural changes between 1955 and 1993. Fewer and larger operations have more and more come to characterize the industry. Data from the Farm Costs and Returns Survey show that cash and capital replacement costs of milk producers range from $5 to more than $25 per hundredweight of milk sold. Size of operation, animal performance, and milk production methods all distinguish low- from high-cost milk producers. However, differences in feed and labor efficiency have the greatest influence on milk production costs. Keywords: Farm Management, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis Length: 42 Number: 308433 Creation-Date: 1996-05 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308433 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308433/files/aer732.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308433 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jones, Elizabeth Author-Name: Shend, Jaclyn Y. Author-Name: [editors] Title: Review of Agricultural Policies in Europe and the Former Soviet Union Abstract: This report describes policies that affect the agricultural sector in 38 countries in Europe and the former Soviet Union, including policies that affect commodity and input prices, the activities of parastatals (Government-owned companies), and the integration of the economies in Europe and the former Soviet Union. To facilitate understanding of the policy choices made in each country, this report also presents data on each country's economy, trade flows, and resource base. Governments (especially the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe) are reducing their role in agricultural markets by reducing or eliminating tariff and nontariff barriers to trade, the scope of parastatal activities, and/or budgetary transfers to agriculture. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, International Relations/Trade Length: 142 Number: 308434 Creation-Date: 1996-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308434 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308434/files/aer733.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308434 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gundersen, Craig Author-Name: et al. [+9] Title: A Safety Net For Farm Households Abstract: Discussions in the public arena have raised fundamental questions about the ultimate goals of farm policy and the need for establishing a safety net for farm households. This report examines four scenarios for government assistance to agriculture based on the concept of ensuring some minimum standard of living. Lower income farmers would benefit relatively more from the safety net scenarios, while farmers producing selected commodities benefit relatively more from current farm programs. Farm households in the Northern Crescent, the Eastern Uplands, the Southern Seaboard, and the Fruitful Rim all would generally receive a higher level and a greater proportion of benefits than under current programs. A clear understanding of objectives and intended beneficiaries must be the starting point for discussions of future farm policy. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Consumer/Household Economics, Research Methods/Statistical Methods Length: 37 Number: 308435 Creation-Date: 2000-10 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308435 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308435/files/aer788.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308435 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Gallagher, Paul Author-Name: Graboski, Michael S. Title: USDA's 1998 Ethanol Cost-of-Production Survey Abstract: In late 1999 and early 2000, USDA surveyed 28 ethanol plants, both wet and dry mills, to estimate their 1998 costs of production (net corn costs and cash variable costs). These ethanol plants processed more than 400 million bushels of corn and sorghum in 1998 to produce more than 1.1 billion gallons of ethanol. The average variable cost of production of ethanol (the sum of the net corn cost plus net variable operating costs) weighted by industry sector was 93.9 cents per gallon. The net feedstock cost averaged about 53 cents per gallon for dry mills and 48 cents per gallon for wet mills. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 13 Number: 308481 Creation-Date: 2002-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308481 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308481/files/aer808.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308481 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Author-Name: Gallagher, Paul Title: USDA's 2002 Ethanol Cost-of-Production Survey Abstract: In 2003, the U.S. Department of Agriculture surveyed 21 dry-mill ethanol plants to estimate their 2002 production costs, including both variable (feedstock and plant operation) and capital expenses. These plants produced about 550 million gallons of ethanol in 2002. Net feedstock costs for the surveyed plants ranged from 39 to 68 cents per gallon in 2002. For cash operating expenses, the average energy expenditure was 17.29 cents per gallon. Labor costs ranged from 3 to 11 cents per gallon, maintenance costs from 1 to 7 cents, and administrative costs from 1 to 18 cents. For capital expenditures, new plant construction costs from $1.05 to $3.00 per gallon of ethanol. Average investment to expand existing ethanol production capacity was 50 cents per gallon; hence, expansion tends to cost less than new capacity. Comparison with a 1998 survey of ethanol producers showed that total operating costs in 2002 had changed very little from 1998. It also showed that the average cost of building new plants had dropped, possibly due to designs that emphasize economies of scale. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 23 Number: 308482 Creation-Date: 2005-07 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308482 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308482/files/aer841.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308482 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rendleman, C. Matthew Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Title: New Technologies in Ethanol Production Abstract: Fuel ethanol production has increased steadily in the United States since the 1980s, when it was given impetus by the need to reduce energy dependence on foreign supplies. The momentum has continued as production costs have fallen, and as the U.S. Clean Air Act has specified a percentage of renewable fuels to be mixed with gasoline. The fraction of annual U.S. corn production used to make ethanol rose from around 1 percent in 1980 to around 20 percent in 2006, and ethanol output rose from 175 million gallons to about 5.0 billion gallons over the same period. New technologies that may further increase cost savings include coproduct development, such as recovery of high-value food supplements, and cellulosic conversion. High oil prices may spur the risk-taking needed to develop cellulose-to-ethanol production. Developments such as dry fractionation technology, now commercially viable, may alter the structure of the industry by giving the cheaper dry-grind method an edge over wet milling. Dry milling requires smaller plants, and local farmer cooperatives could flourish as a result. Though improvements in processing and technology are important, however, the fluctuating price of inputs such as corn, the cost of energy alternatives, and environmental developments play larger roles in the fortunes of the industry. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 33 Number: 308483 Creation-Date: 2007-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308483 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308483/files/aer842.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308483 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lazarus, William F. Title: Farm-Based Anaerobic Digesters as an Energy and Odor Control Technology -- Background and Policy Issues Abstract: This report summarizes the existing literature and analytical perspectives on farm-based digesters, highlights major efforts in the United States and Europe to expand digester usage, and discusses key policy issues affecting digester economics. The study was largely a review of the “gray literature” on digesters, and it serves as a snapshot overview of the industry. Digesters are fairly capital-intensive when viewed primarily as an energy source. On a strictly market basis, current U.S. average electricity prices do not appear to provide sufficient economic justification for digesters to move beyond a fairly limited niche. Digesters make the most sense today where the odor and nutrient management benefits are important, or where the electricity or heat has a higher-than-average value. Digester biogas is mainly methane, which is destroyed when flared or used for electricity. This methane destruction is beneficial in terms of climate change. The associated carbon credits may become a more significant farm revenue source in the future. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Livestock Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 37 Number: 308484 Creation-Date: 2008-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308484 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308484/files/aer843.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308484 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gallagher, Paul W. Author-Name: Shapouri, Hosein Title: Biomass Crop and Ethanol Supply from Agricultural Lands in the United States with Methodology, Estimation Results, and State-by-State Simulations Abstract: We estimated the biomass crop supply from U.S. farmland, accounting for the contribution of marginal lands, gauging effects of removing income support programs, and returning some Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land where biomass production can be sustained. We excluded biomass yield growth because we believe the infrastructure to sustain this growth is not in place. We estimate that 484 million tons of biomass could be brought into production, with 176 million tons on cropland and the remainder coming from marginal farmland. However, it could take a decade with sustained high biomass prices to induce the necessary reallocation of farmland resources. Presently, the land-value effects of existing programs may deter the adoption of biomass processing technologies. Cropland policies more conducive to biomass expansion are reviewed. The ethanol market analysis sketches some plausible market developments that could influence the adoption of biomass ethanol (BE). That is, a corn-ethanol (CE) industry expansion has pushed CE costs up to the point where BE could be competitive. Still, the new entrant, BE, would likely compete with narrow profit margins in the commodity fuel market. But the equilibrium with impending technology suggests ethanol output of 45 billion gallons, or about one-third of U.S. gasoline consumption. However, removing the ethanol subsidy would reduce profitability to near the competitive margin, even if anticipated processing yields for BE occur in the intermediate term. Justifications for retaining the ethanol subsidy are reviewed. Keywords: Agricultural and Food Policy, Crop Production/Industries, Land Economics/Use, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 48 Number: 308485 Creation-Date: 2008-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308485 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308485/files/aer844.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308485 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pradhan, A. Author-Name: Shrestha, D. S. Author-Name: McAloon, A. Author-Name: Yee, W. Author-Name: Haas, M. Author-Name: Duffield, J. A. Author-Name: Shapouri, H. Title: Energy Life‐Cycle Assessment of Soybean Biodiesel Abstract: Excerpt from the report Summary: The first comprehensive life-cycle inventory (LCI) for biodiesel produced in the United States from soybean oil was completed by Sheehan et al. in 1998. The purpose of the study was to conduct a life-cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify and compare the environmental and energy flows associated both with biodiesel and petroleum-based diesel. One of the most often cited results from Sheehan et al. is that the fossil energy ratio of biodiesel is equal to 3.2. In other words, biodiesel yields 3.2 units of energy for every unit of fossil energy consumed over its lifecycle. By contrast, it was found that petroleum diesel’s life cycle yielded only about 0.84 units of energy per unit of fossil energy consumed. The purpose of the following analysis is to update the energy life cycle of the model to determine if any significant changes in the original inventory have occurred since the model was first developed 10 years ago. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Research Methods/Statistical Methods, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 31 Number: 308486 Creation-Date: 2009-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308486 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308486/files/aer845.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308486 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Shapouri, H. Author-Name: Gallagher, Paul W. Author-Name: Nefstead, Ward Author-Name: Schwartz, Rosalie Author-Name: Noe, Stacey Author-Name: Conway, Roger Title: 2008 Energy Balance for the Corn-Ethanol Industry Abstract: The Agricultural Resource Management Survey of corn growers for the year 2005 and the 2008 survey of dry mill ethanol plants are used to estimate the net energy balance of corn ethanol. This report measures all conventional fossil fuel energy used in the production of 1 gallon of corn ethanol. The ratio is about 2.3 BTU of ethanol for 1 BTU of energy inputs, when a portion of total energy input is allocated to byproduct and fossil fuel is used for processing energy. The ratio is somewhat higher for some firms that are partially substituting biomass energy in processing energy. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 16 Number: 308487 Creation-Date: 2010-06 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308487 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308487/files/aer846.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308487 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gallagher, Paul W. Author-Name: Baumes, Harry Title: Biomass Supply From Corn Residues: Estimates and Critical Review of Procedures Abstract: Excerpts from the report Conclusion: Previous estimates suggested that accessible and sustainable corn residue supplies are adequate for a new biomass processing industry. Revision is justified now because the agronomic and economic environment has changed. Also, there is an interest in the location of low cost biomass supplies. The revised estimates of corn stover cost and supply fit today’s yield and input situation. The revised estimates confirm that corn stover supplies could be a low cost feedstock for a low cost and extensive bioenergy industry. Supplies of 100 million metric tons of stover would be available to an established industry at a delivered plant price between $37.5/ton and $40.5/ton. At moderately higher prices, the feedstock for a 10.5 MGY ethanol industry would be available. Several offsetting changes in economic environment and technology have occurred since we calculated our first estimates, but the new supply estimate is still slightly larger. Stover cost remains highly competitive in today’s energy market. Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, Resource/Energy Economics and Policy Length: 31 Number: 308488 Creation-Date: 2012-11 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308488 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308488/files/aer847.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308488 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Beckman, Jayson Author-Name: Gale, Fred Author-Name: Lee, Tani Title: Agricultural Market Access Under Tariff-Rate Quotas Abstract: Forty World Trade Organization (WTO) members have established 1,125 agricultural tariff-rate quotas (TRQs). TRQs are a two-tiered tariff scheme (a lower rate under a quota amount, and a higher rate once that is reached), developed during multilateral trade negotiations in the 1990s to facilitate market access for agricultural trade. This report provides data and analysis on the prevalence of these trade measures. TRQs are classified according to indicators of whether market access is constrained by administrative procedures or nontariff measures that prevent the quota from filling or by the quota itself. This analysis found that 13 percent of TRQs were “underutilized” when imports were less than 65 percent of the quota (a low “fill rate”), even though the cost of imports was less than the domestic price. Another 22 percent of TRQs were classified as “binding” when the fill rate was high and the import cost was less than the domestic commodity rice. Issues have been raised in the WTO regarding some of these TRQs, with the largest number of questions about transparency and administration of quotas. Keywords: Agricultural Finance Length: 31 Number: 308595 Creation-Date: 2021-01 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308595 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308595/files/USDS%20Agricultural%20Market%20Access%20Under%20Tariff%20Rate%20Quotas.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308595 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Maitland, Sheridan T. Title: The Hired Farm Working Force of 1956 Keywords: Labor and Human Capital Length: 52 Number: 308871 Creation-Date: 1958-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308871 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308871/files/aib187.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308871 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Farm Production Economics Division, Economic Research Service Title: Farm Costs and Returns, Commercial Farms by Type, Size, and Location Keywords: Crop Production/Industries, Financial Economics, Labor and Human Capital, Livestock Production/Industries, Production Economics Length: 30 Number: 308892 Creation-Date: 1969-09 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308892 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308892/files/aib230rev1969.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308892 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: McMurtrey, J. E. Title: Tobacco Production Keywords: Crop Production/Industries Length: 60 Number: 308928 Creation-Date: 1961-12 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.308928 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/308928/files/aib245.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:308928 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jarrell, T. D. [compiler] Title: Lists of Publications and Patents, Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry, Agricultural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Issued during Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1950 Keywords: Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies Length: 34 Number: 309004 Creation-Date: 1951-04 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.309004 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/309004/files/aib37.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:309004 Template-Type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Perkinson, Leon B. Title: An Economic Survey of the Northern Lake States Region: Statistical Supplement to Agricultural Economic Report No. 108 Abstract: Excerpts from the report Preface: This statistical supplement was prepared to aid public and private groups and individuals interested in stimulating economic growth in the Lake States--Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin. Its main purpose is to bring together a broad array of social and economic data from many sources to provide a basic handbook of county, substate, and State data. Those interested in a summary and analysis of the Region are referred to An Economic Survey of the Northern Lake States Region, by R. Loomis and M. Wirth (Agr. Econ. Rpt. 108, U.S. Dept. Agr., Feb. 1967). Keywords: Community/Rural/Urban Development, Consumer/Household Economics, Financial Economics, Labor and Human Capital, Public Economics Length: 218 Number: 329850 Creation-Date: 1969-02 DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.329850 File-URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/329850/files/aer108sup.pdf File-Format: application/pdf Handle: RePEc:ags:uerser:329850